Family Language Policy Research Articles

Family dynamics towards heritage language maintenance

This article investigates Family Language Policy and grassroots-level practices of the heritage language speakers who are first-generation migrants of Indian background in Northern Ireland. Having been settled since the 1920s, Indians are one of the longest-established ethnic minorities in the region, representing around 0.5% of the total non-white residents. Whilst languages of migrant communities brought further complexity to the existing linguistic diversity of Northern Ireland, discussions around language policy in this geopolitical domain focus primarily on its two indigenous languages: Irish and Ulster-Scots. There is no particular policy to promote the languages of migrant communities. Drawing on ethnographic observations and two focus groups, the article analyses the language dynamics of eight Belfast-based families. It further demonstrates how these parents become policy intermediaries by monitoring their children’s heritage language learning through explicit teaching, creating a favourable literacy atmosphere at home, ensuring its use in the family through continuous policing and developing identity through constant dialogue with children about Indian culture. Although the under-the-radar participation of these parents may appear intermittently in the policy discourse, their actions can be interpreted as bottom-up language planning to contest the monopoly of the dominant language and culture in the broader community.

Multilingual dynamics: exploring English as a third language in Russian-speaking families across Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden

ABSTRACT Employing a qualitative approach for data collection and analysis, this research focuses on 50 multilingual families, with ten from each country. The study explores the role of English as a third language (L3) in both endogamous and exogamous multilingual families with immigrant and minority backgrounds across Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden. Additionally, it examines the impact of English on family language practices, its effects on Russian as a heritage language, on the majority country language(s), and on (online) education, as well as on (digital) literacy skills. The findings, based on the thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with mothers, highlight the importance of English as an L3 in the context of the majority language and Russian as a heritage language. This emphasises parents’ recognition of English as crucial for their children’s future success and the significance of English education for academic achievement. The study underscores the evolving role of English in multilingual families, by putting emphasis on the need for continued exploration of language practices, proficiency development, and the broader impact on family language policies. We advocate for further investigation into the influence of social and technological factors to enhance understanding of language dynamics in diverse multicultural contexts.

The Role of Age Variables in Family Language Policy

Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in language dominance and preference. The environment and life experiences are thought to shape FLP, yet little is known about the function of age. This study examines the association of FLP with children’s chronological age and the age they become bilingual. Data were collected via questionnaires from parents and their bilingual children (n = 82) aged 5.08–14.08 (M = 8.98, SD = 3.27) speaking English (heritage language) and Hebrew (societal language). Correlations and logistic regressions indicate a relationship between FLP and dimensions of age. Findings reveal that age may have repercussions for parent language beliefs, patterns of language use within the home, and the adoption of language promotion strategies. Younger children and children with a later age of onset of bilingualism are associated with families who lean towards a pro-heritage language FLP. Considering dimensions of age enhances our understanding of FLP and may offer a greater insight into how languages are supported in the bilingual home.

Unpacking family language policy through autoethnography: Insights from a transnational Arabic-speaking family in the United States

Aims and objectives: Adopting an autoethnography research framework, this study draws upon insider insights into family life to investigate the language policy of Arabic-speaking Saudi families in the United States. This approach contributes to family language policy (FLP) scholarship. Leveraging the well-established tradition of autoethnography in sociolinguistic studies, the study examines language socialization within a transnational family and the resulting changes in their FLP. Methodology: This study adopted Spolsky’s framework of language policy, which consists of ideology, management, and planning. Due to the amount and variation of data, analytical induction was used because it identifies recurring patterns and develops initial insights by examining similarities between phenomena. This method also offers analytical lenses for studying personal experiences and social interactions. Data collection and analysis: The data presented in this research were obtained from a larger corpus set obtained during a primary longitudinal study that examined language socialization processes within an Arabic Muslim family temporarily residing in a Western context for a period of 3 years. However, for the purpose of this autoethnographic study, the data analysis was limited to a 2-year period because this analytical method examines broad categories of understanding and then creates sub-categories. Fieldnotes, journals, and recordings were logged and coded to find important patterns. Findings: This study shows autoethnography as a useful approach to greater access to an Arabic-speaking Muslim family living in the United States. It also revealed aspects related to internal conflict and the different views parents can have about raising a bilingual child. The role of contextual factors in impacting FLP is also explained. By considering the broader social and cultural influences on language policy, the study showcased the complex interplay between macro-level factors and micro-level family dynamics. Originality: This study is the one of the rare studies that highlights the autoethnographic approach to FLP with relation to Arabophone Muslim families living in the United States. Also, the study demonstrates the value of the autoethnographic approach to FLP, as it helps to explore insider perspectives to understand the dynamic nature of FLP, the contextual factors influencing it, and how families construct meaning through their language use. Significance: This study lays the groundwork for future sociolinguists interested in FLP research to delve deeper into family language dynamics and explore how children navigate their parents’ language policies through the use of autoethnography approaches.

The intergenerational reinforcement of Spanish in Galicia (Spain)

This article presents a case study on family language policies (FLP) in Galicia (official bilingual community of Spain), based on the analysis of semi-structured interviews with three Spanish-speaking parents who live with their partners and children in urban or semi-urban settings where Spanish is the dominant language. The results indicate a FLP model that reinforces the position of this language in the family, in interaction with the environment, since the informants attribute their children’s learning of Galician exclusively to school, even though they see it as insufficient to incorporate this minority language into their everyday linguistic repertoire, both now and in the future. The assumption of this result is revealed to be rooted in the ideologies about languages, since Galician has little or no economic or even symbolic value for these parents and continues to be strongly associated with the rural world, with the elderly or with no education, reproducing a persistent diglossic culture in Galician society. This language micropolicy is interpreted as a mirror of the laissez-faire attitude that has characterised language policies at the macro level in Galicia, as well as a reflection of its shortcomings in achieving true prestige for Galician.

Language, responsibility, and agency: How UK's immigrant‐background young adults navigate linguistic heritage

AbstractThis study explores the intersection of agency and responsibility in navigating linguistic heritage among immigrant‐background young adults (18–29 years old) in the UK. Drawing on Judith Butler's theorisation, it provides a nuanced understanding of how individuals engage with and respond to the burdening aspects of heritage language maintenance within the complex context of globalised power structures and privileged dynamics. The research employs a qualitative approach, integrating journal entries, interview transcripts, and co‐analysis to elucidate participants' experiences. Through grounded theory development, the study identifies key themes such as: negotiating responsibility across temporalities; the sense of guilt, shame and indebtedness embedded in the process of language maintenance; and finding agency through renarration. The paper contributes to geographical thought on migration and language by going beyond discussions of family language policy and proficiencies and drawing attention to the multifaceted implications of navigating linguistic heritage within immigrant families and monolingual Britain across the instabilities of social and temporal relations and power‐laden positionings. It also highlights the repertoires of narrative and interrelational approaches to reframing heritage that immigrant‐background young adults may access as they formulate their identities with and against language expectations, norms, proficiencies and hegemonies.

<i>What’s language(s) got to do with it?</i>

We explore the relationship between newcomer refugee families’ linguistic competencies in the language of the host country and their collaboration in and with the school. Following a case study design and through the qualitative analysis of interviews with refugee family members and school staff from a German primary school, we analyse these actors’ perspectives on factors hindering and/or supporting the involvement of the families and the responsiveness of the school. In the literature, family language policies and host country linguistic and educational policies are framed as some of those factors, but our results point towards a more fine-grained consideration of the role played by language(s) in the cooperation between newcomer refugee families and the school. Our study reveals the importance of considering linguistic skills in the majority language alongside literacy practices and parents’ (schooling) paths in the home country, and claims that differentiated opportunities for collaboration should be offered depending on refugee families’ trajectories in the home and host countries.

‘We are always planning trips to Poland’: the influence of transnational family life on the family language policy of Polish-speaking families in Ireland

ABSTRACT In the context of heightened global transnational movements and the proximate geographical positioning of Poland and Ireland, this study investigates the impact of the transnational nature of Polish families’ migration experiences in The Republic of Ireland on their family language policy. This research endeavours to address a gap in the literature surrounding the influence of transnationalism on family language policy within Polish-speaking migrant families in Ireland. Grounded in Curdt-Christiansen's [Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. 2018. “Family Language Policy.” In Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning, edited by J. W. Tollefson and M. Pérez-Milans. New York: Oxford University Press.] interdisciplinary model of family language policy, this investigation draws on an ethnographic inquiry into three Polish-speaking families in Ireland. The study focuses on families with first- and second-generation migrant children. Data were gathered through a combination of semi-structured interviews and children's reflective language diaries. The results depict the transnational nature of family life, with recurrent travel between Ireland and Poland evident across all three families. To sustain connections with Poland, parents implemented specific language management strategies. The study underscored the participants’ recognition of the interdependence between the use of the Polish language and the continuation of connections with Poland, as well as the capacity to uphold family life across Ireland and Poland.

“Puro English and a little bit of Spanish”: Bi/multilingual kindergarteners’ language ideologies in a dual language bilingual class during the COVID-19 pandemic

Aims: The goal of the study is to examine bi/multilingual children’s language beliefs and their contributions to school and family language policies in a two-way dual language bilingual education (DLBE) program in the United States while participating in online schooling from home. Methodology: We report from a larger critical ethnographic study with a Title I K-8 school in Arizona. The data for this study are based on ethnographic fieldwork during the 2020–2021 academic year with a DLBE kindergarten cohort. Data and analysis: We conducted semi-weekly class observations and individual semi-structured interviews with 12 bi/multilingual kindergarten children. Data analysis entailed a multi-step thematic analysis through several rounds of focused coding. Findings: Our findings show that the children were deeply aware of the languages they spoke, their proficiency in each, how they chose to express those proficiencies, and the way they identified with each language. We identify ways that children agentively used language to transcend separative language policies by using language fluidly. Originality: The study contributes to the literature on young children’s language policymaking and their reproductive and resistive forms of agency. Our child participants were 5 and 6 years old, an underrepresented age in research that connects school and family language policies. Furthermore, this group’s linguistic, racial-ethnic, and cultural diversity allows for a deeper glimpse into how bi/multilingual children develop complex identities. Implications: The study has implications for the importance of pedagogical and linguistic flexibility with young children in DLBE programs. The study shows the importance of how young bi/multilingual children respond to the processes of implementing a program by highlighting the role and position of each language in their home and school environments.

Family language policy in multilingual Filipino families in Italy

ABSTRACT Many heritage speakers in diaspora communities are multilingual individuals, often speaking two or more heritage languages alongside the societal majority language as well as another lingua franca (i.e. English). This paper examines the multilingual practices of 26 Filipino speakers in Italy (15 from the first generation and 11 second generation) in the framework of Family Language Policy. Four main findings emerge from the sociolinguistic interviews: (1) the multilingualism of the first generation is reduced in second generation, with Philippine regional languages seldom transmitted to children; this is reflected in a varied attitude toward these languages; (2) in parent–children interactions the mixing of Filipino and Italian prevails, thus, although Italian is present, Filipino is always maintained, confirming an overall positive attitude; (3) English is never selected as the only language of communication, but rather in combination with Italian or Filipino; (4) in the second generation, the exclusive use of Italian occurs with peers or younger interlocutors (e.g. siblings, partners, children). This study further contributes to our understanding of linguistic choices among multilingual migrants by allowing a comparison with other Filipino diasporic communities in Asia, North America and Australia.

Family language policy in the Chinese Journal of Language Policy and Planning: a review essay (2016–2022)

ABSTRACT Language policy studies must include family language policy. Chinese-relevant research needs improvement, but international-relevant research has matured. Nevertheless, the number of professionals such as Yuming Li and Curdt-Christiansen who are conducting research in this field is increasing. The Spolsky triple theoretical framework improves knowledge of family language policy and explains family language policy research. More international communication and population movements will complicate family language. Policy research will also generate new questions and findings. China’s internal research mostly centers around challenges, study findings, and visual aspects, necessitating a comprehensive comprehension. This study uses 38 papers on family language policy research from 2016 to 2022 in the Chinese Journal of Language Policy and Planning (CJLPP), an authoritative Chinese journal. It does qualitative analysis to assess the status and progress of family language policy research in China. The research findings indicate that the focus of family language policy studies in journals has primarily centered around two specific themes during the period of 2017–2019. The family language policy study was imbalanced, homogenized, qualitative, and theme-based. Through statistics and analysis of family language policy publications in “Research on Language Strategy,” this study summarizes existing research.

How Parents’ Perceived Value of the Heritage Language Predicts Their Children’s Skills

The growing field of family language policies (FLPs), defined as overt and explicit planning in relation to language use among family members, has garnered increasing interest. FLPs influence child–caretaker interactions and are closely linked to child language development and acquisition. This study investigates the impact of FLPs on children’s proficiency in their heritage language (HL). Employing a multi-method approach, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 53 multilingual parents to explore their beliefs, ideologies, and language management within the family context. Concurrently, their children were administered standardized tasks in their heritage language (HL) to assess receptive vocabulary skills and morphosyntactic comprehension. Our findings indicate that parents’ perceived value of the HL significantly correlates with their children’s language performance, going beyond the influence of reported domestic language usage.

Initiatives to promote the intergenerational transmission of basque: the case of workshops for parents

ABSTRACT In the European context, some revitalisation movements have seen the widespread adoption of minority language schooling among parents who do not speak the minority language. This research discusses the role of the ‘school for fathers and mothers’ or talleres (workshops) to encourage a more Basque-focused household among parents who have low proficiency in Basque. The talleres translate knowledge from the field of language socialisation into messages that orient these parents on how to foster positive attitudes towards Basque within the family. Focusing on an analysis of the workshops’ messages, specifically the techniques of consciousness raising employed by the programme, this research discusses the role of these programmes in catalysing new attitudes and new conceptualisations of a pro-minority Family Language Policy in the context of low-to-no proficiency speakers. They do so by underscoring the role of ‘cultural transmission’ and encouraging low-proficiency parents to see themselves as attitudinal referents through their use of affective linguistic repertoires in Basque. Finally, I discuss the case of the talleres as an example of how the fields of Family Language Policy and Language Socialisation can play an important role in grassroots initiatives by translating research findings into practical information for parents.

Autism and bilingual socialisation: parents’ perspectives and youth language practices in three bilingual (Japanese–English) families

ABSTRACT This study of three bilingual families with autistic children in the U.S. examines parents’ perspectives on bilingual socialisation and analyzes language practices in everyday family interactions. When their children were diagnosed with autism in early childhood, parents in all three families were advised by professionals to speak exclusively in English at home. One set of parents attempted to adhere to the clinician recommendation, while the other two families disregarded this advice. Data collection for this study included questionnaires, open-ended interviews, and 30–32 h of naturally occurring interactions per family. The study employs discourse analysis to explore parents’ stances toward the monolingual recommendation, their discussions about past decisions, and their assessments of their present-day, adolescent children’s language practices. The micro-analytic study of the organisation of family interactions provides a supplemental perspective and highlights the agency of the autistic youth in navigating bilingual conversations. The findings reveal the tensions between institutional and family language policies and detail how youth draw from their respective linguistic repertoires in everyday interactions.

Coping with National Language Policy Shift: Voices of Chinese Immigrant Parents in an Irish County Town

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the diaspora Chinese community in Limerick – an Irish county town in the southwest of the Republic of Ireland – and examines how Chinese parents have responded to the education policy shift resulting from the 2017 Irish foreign language strategy, which added Chinese to the official educational curriculum. A semi-structured group interview was conducted with four Chinese-speaking parents. Analysis of the data revealed that identity preservation and maintaining bonds with extended family are the predominant expressed reasons for parents to cultivate their children’s Chinese proficiency. English and Irish are prioritized over Chinese. Though the parents hold positive attitudes towards the inclusion of Chinese as a school subject in Ireland, they are disempowered from taking advantage of participating in the implementation of this national language shift due to a lack of access to social, cultural, and economic capital. Analysed through a Bourdieuian lens, the findings further expose the limitations or constraints placed on family language policy and the discrepancy between macro- and micro-level language policies. The paper is intended to shed light on education, social justice, and equality, bridging the gap between micro-level family language practices and macro-level language policy.

Towards an emotive-relational model of FLP: mapping the connections between family language policy and parental wellbeing

ABSTRACT This paper addresses the emotive-relational dimensions of family language policy (FLP), in the context of Hungarian families in Australia. The study explored parental experiences of family language policy implementation efforts and challenges. The research used an online survey (N = 80) which collected quantitative and qualitative data. Survey data were analysed using SPSS software to generate descriptive and t-test statistics. The results demonstrate that parents experienced emotional challenges around all three elements of family language policies: (i) ideologies; (ii) language practices and (iii) language management. This paper identifies six main emotive-relational dimensions of FLP: (i) linguistic-ideological, (ii) discursive; (iii) personal/relational; (iv) socio-relational; (v) agentive and (vi) pragmatic. The methods and the results of this study can be useful for researchers investigating the interconnectedness of language maintenance and parental subjective wellbeing. The findings inform current theoretical models and methods of researching family language policy and its complex dimensions. This paper concludes with an empirically tested emotive-relational model of FLP, which informs future research directed at exploring the emotional aspects of FLP from parents’ point of view as language planners.

Preserving Heritage Language in Turkish Families in the USA

A dearth of research concerning Turkish immigrant families in the United States exists, prompting this study’s focus. This research aims to illuminate the influence of parental language attitudes among Turkish immigrants on their motivation to foster the preservation of their heritage language (HL) in their children, alongside an exploration of the strategies employed for HL retention. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 parents (16 mothers and 4 fathers), with each interview spanning 15–20 min. The interviews, conducted individually by the primary author in Turkish and later translated into English, unveiled a spectrum of parental language attitudes, impacting their motivation to uphold HL. Variances in motivation were observed, intertwined with factors such as home and community environments, parental acculturation experiences, perceptions regarding the relationship between culture and language, and the perceived advantages of bilingualism for children’s cognitive development and future prospects. Despite differing motivations, all parents expressed a desire to preserve HL, prompting the deployment of diverse Heritage Language Management Strategies (HLMS). This study significantly contributes to the understanding of how parental attitudes shape HL preservation efforts within families, offering insights crucial to the field of HL and family language policy, thereby highlighting implications for practice and further research.

Šeimos kalbų politikos ir ankstyvosios dvikalbystės sankirta: atvejo analizė

The article discusses family language policy in a family of ethnic Russians in Estonia where the father speaks Russian, and the mother speaks Estonian. This is the case of internalization of Estonian among ethnic Russians, a novel phenomenon in the post-Soviet countries. The data come from family conversations (6 h) and the semi-structured interview with the parents (1.5 h). There are discrepancies between the declared ideologies, management, and practices. The declared policy is OPOL and, as the father rendered it, purism because of the concern that the children will be confused otherwise. During the interview the father switched between Estonian, Russian, and English. In family conversations the mother’s speech (539 turns, of which 50 % are directed to the child) contained code-switching (7% in Russian and 8% switches within one turn in speech directed to the child). The parents claimed to speak Russian to each other, yet the mother occasionally switched to Estonian while talking to the father. In general, both family conversations and the interview proved to be linguistically more diverse than expected.

Framing bilingual parenting as market advantage: the neoliberal discourses of ‘grassroots’ media

ABSTRACT Little research has examined media dimensions of family language policy. This project addresses this gap by analysing marketing efforts targeted at media consumers seeking ‘grassroots’ advice on bilingual parenting. Here, we refer to ‘grassroots media marketing’ as purposeful attempts to target, inform or persuade a niche demographic with ‘grassroots’-style media methods and tools. We did Google Searches to identify 40 high-profile corporate media, non-profit, and independent bilingual parenting blogs written for Spanish- and for English-language readers. We found English- and Spanish-language keyword searches generated distinct blog-style texts (i.e. advice sites). While English-language searches were more likely to generate returns from small-owned blogs, Spanish-language searches tended to yield corporate news and non-profit sites. Frame analysis of multimodal media blog content revealed gaps and contradictions regarding how bilingual parenting in the U.S is portrayed in Spanish and in English, as well as a neoliberal framing across texts. We describe three neoliberal ideologies: (1) ‘bilingual parenting as individual choice’, (2) ‘bilingual parenting as competitive edge’, and (3) ‘bilingual parents as consumers’. Analysis reveals that documented racist, anti-immigrant discourses widely circulating in U.S. society are absent from these neoliberal framings, resulting in public contradictions of what it means to be a ‘good’ bilingual parent.

Decolonizing family language policy, or reimagining family multilingualism as an inclusive field

As a commentary to a special issue dedicated to multilingualism within the family from southern and decolonial approaches, this article examines what it could mean to ‘decolonize the field of family language policy’ – or, rather, to reimagine this field in terms of the more all-encompassing label of family multilingualism. It draws on my own experience of the difficulty of fitting into a field configured in English, from my position as a French researcher working in the contexts of the so-called Global South and supervising students who come from backgrounds minoritized in France and who are personally involved in the subjects on which they work. This commentary has thus been written from relative marginality in this field and out of an experience of both familiarity and foreignness. By proposing four lateral moves, it adds to studies calling for viewpoints to be situated, for voices from the south to be included and for knowledge itself to be decolonized. These lateral moves form part of an attempt to decolonize this academic field if we are to take seriously the need to clean house within the academy itself so that knowledges rooted in western/northern experiences and traditions are simply part of the palette of knowledges.