Family Forest Owners Research Articles

Minority Family Forest Owners in the United States

AbstractFamily forest owners own more forestland in the United States than any other group. There have been no national studies of racial and ethnic minority family forest owners in the United States, in spite of increasing attention to diversity in forestry. Using the US Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey data, we sought to better understand minority owners by looking at their characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors. Of the over 4 million family forest ownerships with 10+ ac in the United States, minorities comprise 6.6 percent of the ownerships and own 5.1 percent of the 265 million ac. Although many similarities exist between minority and nonminority owners, such as reasons for owning land and concerns, minority landowners tend to be more regionally located, have smaller forest holdings, are less likely to manage their forests, and are less likely to have participated in assistance programs. Broad insight into the attitudes and behaviors of minority family forest owners can help policymakers, program directors, and outreach coordinators begin to understand the needs of minority landowners, providing this historically underserved group with tools they need to attain their forest management and land-use goals. By increasing minority landowner engagement, we can hopefully slow the loss of land by minority landowners.

Northeastern Family Forest Owner Gender Differences in Land-Based Estate Planning and the Role of Self-Efficacy

Abstract Understanding family forest owner (FFO) estate planning decisionmaking is fundamental to ensuring the survival of landscapes that provide many public goods, but little is known about how land-based estate planning differs by gender. Analyses of a survey of FFOs in northeastern United States indicated that female FFOs rate themselves with lower levels of land-based estate planning self-efficacy—being less prepared, confident, and financially able to move forward with planning the future of their land than males. Of the FFOs who had positive levels of land-based estate planning self-efficacy, females were more likely to want to keep their land undeveloped than males. Our research suggests that increasing land-based estate planning self-efficacy of female FFOs may lead to higher rates of keeping land undeveloped for regions with FFOs similar to those of the northeast. We recommend ways in which foresters and programs could play an important role in increasing land-based estate planning self-efficacy.

Key Issues Affecting Oregon Family Forest Owners: A Scoping Review of the Literature and Survey Analysis of Educational Service Providers

Given the significance of family owned forests and woodlands to the economic and environmental condition of Oregon, the provision of appropriate educational programs and services is of utmost importance. The priority forest management issues affecting family owned forests, identified for the state of Oregon by the Oregon Department of Forestry (the primary state forestry agency), help to inform educational programs. In addition, these issues often inform the content for landowner support through cost-share and technical assistance programs, which may or may not address landowner needs. We prioritized the following five priorities for family forests in Oregon: climate change, wildfire, ecosystem services, legacy (generational succession of land), and forest health (insects and diseases). We undertook a scoping review of the recent literature (2000–2018) to determine the degree to which researchers were focusing on these issues in the state as well as a web-based survey of family forest and woodland owner educational service providers to determine if outreach programs were targeting these priorities. From a total of 52 papers identified, 19 met the search criteria for inclusion. Two papers focused on climate change, one on forest health, ten on ecosystem services, eight on wildfire, and none on legacy. Scoping review results indicate that the priority issues explored in this study are addressed in literature focusing on family forestland owners in Oregon, albeit some issues more in depth than others, with forest legacy not being addressed at all. Our survey results indicate that the five priority issues seem to align among the state, educators, and landowners, and that educational opportunities are being provided for all issues to some extent. However, there is a need for a more focused allocation of resources to address some of the knowledge gaps and discrepancies identified here.

The “Coming Age of Wood” and Family Forest Owners: An Implications Wheel® Exploration

The context within which family forest owners operate is constantly changing due to many internal and external factors. Many emerging social, economic, environmental, and technological changes could have profound effects on family forest owners and their land in the future. This paper explores a possible transformative technological change: A “Coming Age of Wood” in which a large number of technological innovations in wood products result in a significant increase in the use of wood-based materials throughout the global economy, substituting for a significant share of non-renewable materials. This high impact development could be transformative for forests and forestry, including small-scale forestry. We used a participatory Futures Research method called the Implications Wheel® to explore the potential direct and indirect implications of a Coming Age of Wood for family forest owners. A total of 195 possible higher-order implications were uncovered, including implications related to major themes of negative ecological effects, positive economic effects, increased conflict between different stakeholders, and negative effects on rural communities. Anticipating some of the possibilities in advance can provide early warnings of the kinds of changes that may be coming, and help enable planners, managers and policy makers to be proactive and build barriers to undesirable change and bridges to facilitate positive change.

Compounding the Disturbance: Family Forest Owner Reactions to Invasive Forest Insects

Invasive forest insect and pathogens (FIP) are having significant, direct, adverse impacts. Interactions between FIPs and forest owners have the potential to create ecosystem impacts that compound direct impacts. We assessed family forest owners' responses to numerous contingent behavior, FIP-outbreak scenarios in the northeastern USA based on FIP outbreak attributes. The survey was divided into four versions and each respondent was given four hypothetical scenarios and asked to gauge their certainty of each response. Sixty-eight percent of the hypothetical scenario responses (n = 2752) indicated an intent to harvest as a result of FIPs, and 49% indicated this intent with certainty. Eighty-four percent of respondents (n = 688) would consider harvesting for at least one of the four hypothetical scenarios presented, and 67% of respondents were certain of their intent to harvest for at least one of the four hypothetical scenarios. Harvest intention increased with greater FIP-related tree mortality and decreased with delayed total tree mortality. Owners with larger holdings, who had previously harvested forest products, and live on their forestland had greater intentions to harvest in response to FIPs. Results suggest that FIPs could transform the regional harvest regime with socio-ecological impacts that are distinct from those caused by FIPs or harvesting alone.

Where farm and forest meet: Comparing National Woodland Owner Survey respondents with and without farmland

Much is known about the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of U.S. family forest owners and agricultural landowners independently. However, little is known about those who own both woodland and farmland. To address this knowledge gap, we analyze National Woodland Owner Survey data to better understand similarities and differences between family forest owners who also own farmland, and those who do not. We found that, in general, farmland and woodland owners (FWOs) are very similar to woodland-only family forest landowners (FFOs) in terms of ownership objectives, attitudes and forest management activities. However, FWOs are less likely to have under 40 acres (16.2 ha) of forestland, more likely to live on their wooded land, and more likely to own their woodlands as a place to raise their family than woodland-only FFOs. While there is potential for dual forms of outreach, technical and financial assistance, and peer networks as both an agricultural landowner and a forest landowner, forest management behaviors of FWOs do not significantly differ from that of woodland-only FFOs. Professionals from agricultural or forestry extension, soil and water conservation organizations, and others responsible for delivering both agricultural and forestry programs and policy tools could explore opportunities to connect FWOs to both types of landowner programs that can assist them with forest management.

Assessing New England Family Forest Owners' Invasive Insect Awareness

Family forest owners in the United States have underscored the need for forest insect pest (FIP) information, and numerous Extension programs have been developed to meet pest information needs. We developed the Pest Awareness Index to illustrate the heterogeneity of familiarity, knowledge, and experience regarding three FIPs (hemlock woolly adelgid, emerald ash borer, Asian long-horned beetle) in four New England states. Using mail survey data of family forest owners, we calculated an index from three components and provided comparisons based on region and actual insect presence. The differences in the index across these domains have implications for measurement and delivery of Extension programs.

Agent-Based Modeling for bioenergy sustainability assessment

Woody biomass bioenergy is an important renewable alternative to conventional fossil fuels. However, the negative land-use change impacts of biomass harvesting necessary for bioenergy production can potentially outweigh its positive benefits if poorly managed. In this paper, we explain how Agent-Based Modeling (ABM), a form of computer simulation, can be used to conduct a comprehensive bioenergy sustainability assessment to identify possible gains and trade-offs necessary to develop bioenergy in regions with large numbers of private family forest owners or smallholders who own a significant share of available biomass. We discuss how ABM simulation can overcome the barriers of existing sustainability assessment tools and provide a demonstration of the sustainability assessment capabilities of an ABM using a hypothetical case study that explores the introduction of a bioenergy conversion facility in the Western Upper Peninsula of Michigan, United States. We conduct a series of alternative futures scenarios and compare the sustainability outcomes of three alternative policy regimes using voluntary incentive programs to encourage smallholders to harvest biomass.

Longitudinal data on family forest owners: The US Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey

Although a rich history of scholarship exists on the attitudes, past behaviors, and behavioral intentions of family forest owners, little is known about how these social factors change over time. Furthermore, linking behavioral intentions with actual behaviors of family forest owners will require a longitudinal design that re-measures behaviors of the same respondents over time to match with earlier surveys of intention to behavior. Previous attempts to measure behavioral and attitudinal change over time have been largely opportunistic and have not followed a true longitudinal study design. Additionally, previous attempts to measure change in family forest owner behavior have been limited in geographic scope. This research note briefly describes data management considerations for analyzing the U.S. Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS) longitudinally for the past three iterations of the survey and describes the potential changes in family forest ownership to demonstrate the approach. Forty-one percent of commonly-sampled points remained in the same ownership type between the first two survey iterations, and interesting shifts in ownership type were observed. For example, 30% of resampled locations changed ownership between the two survey iterations. As the NWOS continues to be implemented, the value of this longitudinal dataset will continue increasing, even as respondents are lost to follow-up, or as land changes hands.

Do forest property characteristics reveal landowners' willingness to accept payments for ecosystem services contracts in southeast Georgia, U.S.?

Previous research has found that the manner in which forests are managed reveals forest owners' goals and management preferences for their properties. In this study, we attempt to predict forest owners' participation in payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs using observable forest management in southeast Georgia, U.S. For this task, we rely on forest property characteristics identified from publicly available aerial images and databases. We examine whether and how forest property characteristics are related to family forest owners' preferences towards PES programs. The results from a random parameter logit model indicate that forest owners in southeast Georgia with planted pine forests, bottomland hardwood forests, or residential structures are more likely to participate in hypothetical PES programs. The results also indicate that forest owners' willingness to accept compensation to participate in PES programs is negatively related to the proportion of planted pine and bottomland hardwood forest areas, and to the existence of a residential structure on one's property. Findings of our study indicate the potential of revealed forest property characteristics in identifying and targeting PES programs.

What are family forest owners thinking and doing about invasive plants?

Effectively managing invasive plants across forested landscapes requires voluntary control by 10.7 million family forest owners (FFOs) who own 36% of forestlands in the USA. The literature on individual and collective invasive plant management has focused on farmers, ranchers, urban gardeners and community residents, with less attention on forestlands and the role of FFOs. By analyzing survey data from 1422 FFOs in Indiana, USA, we provide a thorough assessment of their awareness, perceptions, behaviors and intentions towards invasive plants; as well as their needs and challenges. In our study, FFOs reported moderate familiarity with, concern about, and interest in invasive plant control on and around their properties. Despite a lack of confidence in their ability to manage invasive plants, FFOs reported having taken actions on the ground, including inspecting their woodlands, talking to their families and other landowners, and removing invasive plants, all without much input from natural resource professionals. Most FFOs relied on self-directed learning and social networks for invasive plant-related information and advice. They generally had little or no experience or interest in interacting with natural resource professionals. This suggests a need for natural resource professionals to refocus their efforts on developing communication strategies to target specific segments of FFOs, stronger online presence to facilitate self-directed learning, and partnerships with non-profit organizations trusted by FFOs to encourage self-organization and sharing of information and resources. These results from Indiana provide important insights for engaging FFOs to manage invasive plants more broadly.

A comparison of participants and non-participants of state forest property tax programs in the United States

Information collected by the National Woodland Owner Survey, supplemented with state forest property tax program, land use, and socio-economic data, was used to develop a national characterization of participants enrolled in state forest property tax programs and their forest land. Family forest owners who owned a single parcel of forest land, were at least slightly familiar with their state's property tax program, and whose forest land qualified to participate in their state's program were included in the analysis. Landowner and parcel characteristics were organized into eight categories hypothesized to distinguish participants and non-participants. The analysis found that enrolled lands are larger, more likely found in predominantly forested landscapes, more actively managed, and less likely used for hunting than non-enrolled forest land. While enrollment in a state forest property tax program is positively associated with higher population density, no correlation was found between enrollment tendency and land development pressure, as defined in this analysis. The owners of enrolled forest lands generally report higher household incomes than their non-enrolled counterparts. However, owners whose forest land is enrolled in a forest property tax program do not express greater concern about the level of property tax levied on their forest land, and are no less likely to divest their land than non-enrollees. The information generated from this study may help state forest property tax program administrators and public policy makers improve the ability of these programs to achieve their intended objectives, such as incentivizing the production of timber, other ecosystem goods and services, and forest land protection, through more effective marketing and targeting efforts.

US family forest management coupling natural and human systems: Role of markets and public policy instruments

We offer a conceptual framework where management couples natural and human systems backed by a representative synthesis of the literature studying US family forest owners. Within a socio-ecological forest system, management occurs at the intersection of resources and conditions intrinsic to owners and land with interactions influenced by extrinsic social and natural factors. Among extrinsic factors, public policy stands out as a major instrument society uses to influence how family forest owners manage their parcels. We discuss how public policy tools influence individual management preferences occurring within a system of forest owners. In the US, forestry extension programs are a major conduit for achieving public policy objectives by increasing family forest owners’ knowledge and reducing barriers to purposeful management, among other services. We conclude with insights into documented relationships linking family forestlands and owners to larger natural and human systems and identify areas where more research is warranted.

Current conditions of family forest owners in a traditional forestry area

Current conditions of family forest owners in a traditional forestry area

What Influences Whether Family Forest Owners Participate in Outreach Campaigns?

We used an experimental design to analyze factors affecting participation rates for family forest owner outreach campaigns. Through logistic regression, we assessed the participation rates as a function of campaign and landowner attributes. Participation rates ranged from 3% to 14%. Owners offered a publication were on average 4.3 times more likely to participate than those offered a forester visit. Owners with a college degree were on average 1.5 times more likely to participate than those with lower levels of formal education. Extension and other outreach professionals can use knowledge of these factors to design more effective outreach campaigns.

Family forest owners and landscape-scale interactions: A review

Forested landscapes around the world are owned, governed, and managed by many small owners and collectives. The management decisions that these owners and collectives make aggregate into measurable impacts on forest cover, fragmentation, carbon storage, biodiversity, and on the ecosystem services these forests provide to owners and broader society. Conversely, large scale processes such as climate change, globalization of markets, changes to laws regarding land tenure and access, and labor migration and remittances dramatically affect individual forest owners and the activities they are able to do on their land. Using NVivo 11.0, I coded and analyzed 456 papers describing research in the intersection of private or communal owners, forests, and landscape-scale impacts or influences. This analysis identified several prominent themes. Forested landscapes are increasingly split into smaller managed segments among more owners, in some cases facilitating deforestation. Global-scale processes such as labor migration and globalized forest product systems influence management decisions of family forest owners in most countries, particularly the choice of growing exotic species plantations and converting forests to cash crops. Programs and policies aimed at family and communal forest owners can be better targeted to incentivize these owners to protect and enhance forest benefits for broader society, and to better support owners’ adaptations to climate change, invasive species, biodiversity loss, and population demographics. Forest-based tourism and non-timber forest products are important but undervalued incentives for forest conservation. Given the large proportion of forests owned and managed by smallholders, landscape-scale planning and conservation goals cannot be met without engaging these forest owners.

Risk Attitudes and Conservation Decisions: A Case Study of Family Forest Owners in Georgia

We examine the role of individual risk attitudes in family forest owners’ decisions regarding participation in payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs. We elicited participants’ risk attitudes using the multiple price list methodology and obtained their preferences toward hypothetical PES program designs using a choice experiment contained in a survey instrument. Forest owners required more compensation as the contract length increased and preferred cash payments over tax credits, regardless of their risk attitudes. They also required higher payments for wider stream buffers and for limiting increases in pine plantation area on enrolled parcels. Risk-averse forest owners were more likely to participate in the hypothetical PES programs than risk-neutral and risk-seeking forest owners. Furthermore, risk-averse forest owners required less compensation than risk-tolerant forest owners. Research findings suggest that identifying and targeting risk-averse forest owners in the process of designing and advertising PES programs could increase conservation success with lower budgets.

Factors associated with family forest owner actions: A vote-count meta-analysis

Family forest owners in the United States have an important role in providing social and ecological benefits across landscapes. Thus, a detailed understanding of their land management behavior is critical to determine whether or not these benefits will be realized. In this paper, we report on a vote-count meta-analysis of peer-reviewed quantitative studies in the U.S. to examine an array of forest landowner behaviors. We extend other reviews of this literature by including papers with any behavioral dependent variable, rather than only timber harvesting or land management behavior. We document the significance, direction, and frequency of independent variables examined with regard to 13 categories of behavior including participation in policy tools, cross-boundary cooperation, invasive species management, and wildlife management. Study-level characteristics are reported for the 128 published studies that met initial inclusion criteria for this analysis (quantitative studies within the U.S. modeling landowner behavior that were published between 2002 and 2016). Thirty-eight studies that statistically modeled landowner behavior were further analyzed. Studies examining intentions were excluded, as were qualitative explorations of landowner behavior. The most commonly studied behavior included in our analysis was participation in landowner incentive programs, and the least common was participation in cross-boundary cooperation. Among independent variables, owner characteristics and ownership objectives were most commonly included. Independent variables found to be significant across behaviors examined included: current/past landowner behaviors, knowledge, and parcel size/forested acres. Actions like cross-boundary cooperation and landowner interactions have not been quantitatively modeled as often as other actions, and represent key areas for future research.

Family-forest owner decisions, landscape context, and landscape change

We examined broad-scale patterns in family forest owners’ decisions to use estate planning and conservation tools, and participate in preferential tax programs in eight forested landscapes of the United States. We focused our analyses on patterns across regions and states, and scrutinized the impacts of adding regional and state fixed effects to discrete choice models of owner behaviors. We used chi-square testing and binary discrete choice models to analyze mail-survey responses collected from landowners. Our exploratory research revealed distinct broad-scale patterns by owner decision, with the strongest evidence of state and regional variation in owner participation in preferential tax programs and some evidence of such variation in decisions to use wills and trusts. In contrast, we detected no such differences when examining decision-making about conservation easements across regions or states. Our findings in support of state and regional effects suggest forested landscape contexts beyond owner and parcel characteristics matter and could potentially drive differences in behaviors and forest outcomes. Measures of regional and state fixed effects can provide useful information about contextual differences across forested landscapes, such as differences in public programs and engagement aimed at owners. They can also inform the appropriateness of transferring insights across landscapes. Building on these findings, we share guidance for future data collection and research, including how improved monitoring and greater consideration of contextual factors beyond individual and ownership characteristics could enhance understanding of family forest owner decision-making and landscape change.

Forest owners’ views on storing carbon in their forests

ABSTRACTGiven the high percentage of private forest ownership in Finland, family forest owners have an important role in mitigating climate change. The study aims to explore Finnish family forest owners’ perceptions on climate change and their opinions on increasing carbon storage in their forests through new kinds of management activities and policy instruments. The data consists of thematic face-to-face interviews among Helsinki metropolitan area forest owners (n = 15). These city-dwellers were expected to be more aware of and more interested in climate change mitigation than forest owners at large. Forests as carbon fluxes appear to be a familiar concept to most of the forest owners, but carbon storage in their own forests was a new idea. Four types concerning forest owners’ view on storing carbon in their forests could be identified. The Pioneer utilizes forestland versatilely and has already adopted practices to mitigate climate change. The Potential is concerned about climate change, but this is not seen in forest practices applied. The Resistant is generally aware of climate change but sees a fundamental contradiction between carbon storing and wood production. The Indifferent Owner believes that climate change is taking place but does not acknowledge a relation between climate change and the owner’s forests.