Family Ethnic Socialization Research Articles

The changes in biethnic acceptance across daily settings and biethnic adolescents' psychological well-being during middle school transition.

Patterns of biethnic adolescents' perceived biethnic acceptance across families, peers, and school contexts were examined during the transition from elementary to middle school in South Korea. We also examined how the transition patterns were related to their psychological outcomes during this period. Utilizing 2-wave data (2017 and 2019) from the Panel Survey of Korean Multicultural Youth Adjustment, a latent transition analysis was conducted. Participants were biethnic adolescents who were in 5th or 6th grade at Wave 1 (N = 245; 51.02% female; Mage = 11.38). Their fathers were Korean, and mothers were immigrants from neighboring countries. Familial ethnic socialization, peer discrimination, and school multicultural climate scores were used as indicators of biethnic acceptance. Outcomes of self-esteem, depression, and biethnic affirmation were also examined. Latent profile and transition analyses yielded two groups (i.e., high acceptance and low acceptance) at each wave and four transition patterns (i.e., high-high, low-high, low-low, and high-low). Compared to high-high group, which was the most prevalent group, low-low and high-low groups reported lower self-esteem and ethnic affirmation, and greater depression at Wave 3. While for the majority of participants, their daily settings continued to be high in biethnic acceptance across the transition period, most at risk were those who perceived a decrease in biethnic acceptance in their daily settings. Results shed light on the need for support to maintain the context of high biethnic acceptance surrounding biethnic adolescents for their psychological well-being in school transitions.

Intergenerational Ambivalence, Self-differentiation and Ethnic Identity: A Mixed-methods Study on Family Ethnic Socialization

Ethnic identity, profoundly influenced by familial factors, embodies multifaceted layers; yet, the intricate process of family ethnic socialization warrants deeper exploration. This study focuses on exploring the complexities of ethnic identity formation, specifically within the context of Yi adolescents. Employing a mixed-methods approach, it delves into family ethnic socialization dynamics among Yi adolescents. The research engaged 606 surveyed participants and conducted interviews with 188 individuals in focused group settings in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China. Quantitative analysis revealed correlations between caregiver-adolescent relationships (CAR) and ethnic identity. Adolescents experiencing ambivalent, positive, or neutral CAR exhibited higher ethnic identity levels than those with negative CAR. Qualitative analysis highlighted two key themes. Firstly, families tended to acculturate love through traditional cultural expectations and socialization, demonstrated through unconscious integration of Yi culture and a focus on individual modernity within family values. Secondly, ethnic identity attainment was observed through self-differentiation, including reflexive awareness of Yi ethnicity, enrichment of Yi identity through peer interactions, and the connection of self-actualization with Yi prosperity. The findings emphasize the need for culturally sensitive support, particularly for social workers, to facilitate reflexive self-differentiation among ethnic minority adolescents during family ethnic socialization.

Assessing Invariance of Universal Ethnic-Racial Identity Measures Among Black Adolescents in the United States.

Black immigrants and their children represent a significant and growing share of the U.S. Black population; however, their experiences of their multifaceted identities are often collapsed into the experiences of multigenerational Black youth. The current study investigates whether generalized ethnic-racial identity measures are equivalent for Black youth with an immigrant parent and Black youth with only U.S.-born parents. Participants were 767 Black adolescents (16.6% immigrant-origin; Mage = 16.28, SD = 1.12) attending diverse high schools in two regions of the U.S. Participants completed the affirmation, exploration, and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (EIS-B), along with the centrality and public regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (MIBI-T). The results indicated that, whereas the EIS-B demonstrated scalar invariance, the MIBI-T demonstrated partial scalar invariance. Accounting for measurement error, immigrant-origin youth reported lower affirmation than multigenerational U.S.-origin youth. Across groups, ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution scores were positively associated with family ethnic socialization; ethnic-racial identity affirmation was positively associated with self-esteem; and ethnic-racial identity public regard was negatively associated with ethnic-racial discrimination, supporting convergent validity. Conversely, centrality was positively associated with discrimination among multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth, but the relation was not significant among immigrant-origin Black youth. These results fill a methodological gap in the literature, providing researchers with empirical support for considering whether to pool immigrant-origin and multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth in analyses regarding ethnic-racial identity.

The Role of Family Ethnic Socialization and Generational Status in White Adolescents’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development

Family ethnic socialization (FES) is a critical component of youth ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development. However, little research has focused on FES experiences amongst White families. The current study applied a convergent mixed methods design to investigate how immigration generational status (i.e., number of U.S.-born parents and grandparents) was associated with FES within White American families and the extent to which that informed adolescents’ ERI development. Utilizing survey data for White adolescents’ ( N = 532) self-reported FES experiences and ERI exploration and resolution, quantitative path analyses testing for mediation indicated that, as adolescents reported more family members born in the U.S., their FES experiences were lower and, in turn, their ERI exploration and resolution were also lower. FES fully mediated the relation between generational status and their ERI exploration and resolution. A theoretical thematic analysis of focus group data from a subsample of participants offered insights into how White adolescents described their FES experiences, illustrating the integral role of parents and grandparents for learning about their ethnic heritage, school’s role in facilitating FES, and various methods of maintaining familial collective cultural memory. The current study offers preliminary insights into FES among White families and identifies new questions for exploration future research.

Beyond Family Ethnic Socialization and Heritage Language Ability: The Relation between Desire to Learn Heritage Language and Ethnic Identity

We examined the relationship between ethnic identity (EI), family ethnic socialization (FES), heritage language ability (HLA), and desire to learn a heritage language (HLD) in a sample of 91 U.S. psychology graduate students. We had four main findings. First, HLD had a significant positive relation with EI (24.9%). Second, FES had a significant positive relation with EI (33.8%). Above and beyond FES, HLD uniquely accounted for 10.9% of the variance of EI. Third, HLA had a significant positive relation with EI (12.3%). Above and beyond HLA, HLD uniquely accounted for 12.7% of the variance of EI. Accounting for the contribution of HLD decreased the beta associated with HLA; a finding that suggests HLD may mediate the relation between HLA and EI. Fourth, the combined contribution of FES and HLA accounted for approximately 36.3% of the variance of EI. HLD had a significant positive relation to ethnic identity after the other the factors in this study were considered, in combination, and uniquely explained 9.0% of the variance of EI. Our results highlight the importance of considering internal factors, such as desire to learn a heritage language, when examining ethnic identity. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.

The Enhancing and Buffering Role of Ethnic Socialization on the Links Between Discrimination and Prosocial Behaviors Among U.S. Latinx Young Adults

The goal of the current study was to examine ethnic socialization as a moderator in the links between discrimination and two forms of prosocial behaviors (i.e., actions intended to benefit others) in order to better understand the role of socialization in protecting young adults from discrimination experiences. Participants were 1,527 Latinx college students ( M age = 20.35 years, SD = 3.88; 75.2% women) who completed measures of their perceptions of discrimination, family ethnic socialization experiences, and their tendencies to engage in selflessly (altruistic) versus selfishly (public) motivated prosocial behaviors. The results demonstrated that discrimination was positively associated with altruistic prosocial behaviors but was not associated with public prosocial behaviors. Ethnic socialization was positively associated with public prosocial behaviors and negatively associated with altruistic prosocial behaviors. Additionally, ethnic socialization moderated the link between discrimination and both altruistic and public prosocial behaviors. The results highlight the important role of discrimination in young adults’ prosocial behaviors, while also demonstrating ethnic socialization as a protective factor.

Puerto Rican adolescents’ visits to the island, familial ethnic socialization, and cultural orientation

AbstractFamilial ethnic socialization is an important way in which Latino youth in the United States become oriented toward their culture. Although many Latino adolescents have contact with their familial homelands outside the United States, which may also promote their cultural orientation, extant research has focused on familial ethnic socialization within the U.S. The present study examined visits to the familial homeland as an ethnic socialization process among 105 stateside Puerto Rican adolescents (M = 15.96 years, SD = 1.41; 52% girls). Factor analyses suggested that visits to Puerto Rico and familial ethnic socialization were not part of the same construct. Moreover, path analyses showed that visits to Puerto Rico and familial ethnic socialization were associated with different aspects of Puerto Rican youths’ cultural orientation. Consistent with previous work, increased familial ethnic socialization was associated with greater ethnic identity and overall endorsement of the Latino values of family obligations and respeto. In contrast, more frequent visits to Puerto Rico were associated with greater expected endorsement of family obligations and respeto in challenging daily life situations.

Differences in Effects of Priming Culture, and in Effects of Diversity, on Dimensions of Identity

ABSTRACT The study tested the effects of priming culture on academic self-concept (ASC) and ethnocentrism, and the relationship between prior intergroup contact (PIC) and familial ethnic socialization (FES) and those two outcomes. The study asked: Does priming culture affect achievement outcomes and manifestations of social identity? Do immigrant generation groups differ in ASC and ethnocentrism? Does the extent someone experiences diversity, and ethnic socialization, affect confidence and interest in academic study and feelings of group superiority? Hispanic and White 8th graders (N = 72) in six middle schools were surveyed on PIC and FES and later engaged in either a cultural priming or neutral priming activity and were surveyed on ASC and ethnocentrism. Significant group differences were found in both ASC and ethnocentrism depending on the type of priming. Both Whites and Hispanics scored higher in ASC and ethnocentrism after Hispanic priming than after American priming. In other words, including Hispanic culture in classrooms benefited indirectly the achievement of both Hispanic and White students through ASC. Increasing acculturation was correlated with higher ASC and lower ethnocentrism. PIC was related to higher ASC and lower ethnocentrism. FES predicted higher ethnocentrism. Results support the bidirectional influence of culture and that diversity affects ethnocentrism.

The mediation process between Latino youths' family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement: Moderation by ethnic-racial discrimination?

Guided by García Coll and colleagues' (1996) integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children, the current study examined the role of ethnic-racial identity as a mediator through which family ethnic socialization was associated with academic engagement among Latino youth. Furthermore, based on the high prevalence rates of ethnic-racial discrimination among Latino adolescents, the associations between experiences with peer and adult discrimination and youth's academic engagement (controlling for family ethnic socialization and ethnic-racial identity) were tested. Finally, we tested whether discrimination from either peers or adults moderated the mediation process between family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement. Data were collected from a cross-sectional study of adolescents in the Southwestern United States. Participants in the current study consisted of self-identified Latino adolescents (N = 370; Mage = 16.14 years; SD = 1.12; Range = 14-18; 52.8% female; 96.2% U.S.-born) who completed self-administered surveys during school hours. Path analyses indicated that family ethnic socialization was indirectly associated with academic engagement via ethnic-racial identity. Adult discrimination was negatively associated with academic engagement; however, peer discrimination was not associated with academic engagement. Finally, neither source of discrimination emerged as a moderator of the associations of interest. Findings point to Latino youth's enhanced resilience against discrimination encounters when they have more experiences with family ethnic socialization and have engaged in greater ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic Socialization in Current and Prospective Parents

Few studies have examined whether the manner in which one has been parented impacts one’s subsequent parenting style regarding ethnic socialization. We examined this question in current and prospective parents. First, we found that receiving greater familial ethnic socialization is significantly correlated with stronger subsequent parental ethnic socialization (PES) for both current and prospective parents. Second, we found that PES did not significantly differ between current and prospective parents. Third, given the limited research examining the ethnic socialization experiences of those who are White, we examined these questions specifically for our White participants. Our findings persisted when we examined all ethnicities together and when we examined White participants alone.

Familial and Parental Ethnic Socialization Within Majority, Minority, and Multiracial Groups

As ethnic diversity grows within the United States, so does the need for understanding ethnic identity (EI), which develops through ethnic socialization (ES). In a family context, this is known as familial ethnic socialization (FES), whereas parental ethnic socialization (PES) refers to ethnically socializing one’s children. This study explores differences and similarities in EI, FES, and PES between ethnic majority, minority, and multiracial groups. It also introduces PES as an emerging construct in EI research.

Contextual Moderators of a School-Based Ethnic-Racial Identity Intervention: The Roles of Family Ethnic Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Background.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) formation is a key developmental competency that contributes to adolescents' sense of self and psychosocial adjustment. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) has demonstrated the efficacy of a universal school-based health promotion intervention program to positively influence adolescents' ERI exploration and ERI resolution, compared to an attention control curriculum that was delivered by the same facilitators, had equivalent contact hours, and focused on post-secondary career and educational options. The current study extended prior tests of the RCT to better understand (a) how intervention-based ERI changes unfolded over two phases-temporally proximal pre- to post-test effects and long-term post-test effects across a 1-year follow-up period, and (b) identify for whom the intervention was more effective by testing theorized contextual moderators-baseline family ethnic socialization practices and youth ethnic-racial background (i.e., White majority vs. ethnic-racial minority). Bilinear spline growth models were used to examine longitudinal ERI trajectories in intervention and control groups across four survey assessments (baseline, 12weeks, 18weeks, 67weeks; N = 215; Mage = 15.02; 49.1% female; 62.6% ethnic-racial minority). In support of an additive effect for the role of families in school-based interventions, post-test ERI exploration significantly increased (relative to thecontrol group) to a greater extent for youth with higher (compared to lower) baseline levels of family ethnic socialization. ERI resolution significantly increased from pre- to post-test for ethnic-racial minority youth and also increased across the 1-year follow-up period for White youthin the intervention. These results highlight family ethnic socialization as a developmental asset for school-based ERI interventions and demonstrate differential pathways by which such interventions support ERI development for ethnic-racial minority and majority adolescents.

Perceived Discrimination and Risk Behaviors in African American Students: the Potential Moderating Roles of Emotion Regulation and Ethnic Socialization.

Prior research has identified perceived discrimination as being a contributing factor in health and mental health disparities. However, there is little research on the relationship between perceived discrimination and behaviors such as hazardous alcohol and illicit substance use and risky sexual behaviors that put people at risk for negative health consequences including HIV. The current research explores the role that cultural factors may play in a tendency for individuals to engage in unhealthy behaviors or an ability to avoid them. A total of 266 college students who self-identified as Black or African American were surveyed on measures of familial ethnic socialization, perceived discrimination, emotion regulation, substance use, and risky sexual behaviors. Findings indicate that perceived discrimination and emotion regulation-suppression were associated with higher levels of hazardous alcohol use, and that emotion regulation-cognitive reappraisal was associated with lower levels of illicit substance use. Implications for intervention and prevention in African American college students are discussed.

Context of biethnic acceptance, biethnic affirmation, and life satisfaction among Korean biethnic adolescents

IntroductionThis study aimed to identify latent profiles based on familial ethnic socialization, peer discrimination, and school multicultural climate among biethnic adolescents in South Korea and to examine how the emerged profiles were related to their life satisfaction.We also examined how biethnic affirmation interacted with the profiles in predicting life satisfaction. MethodsQuestionnaire data from the first wave of the Panel Survey of Korean Multicultural Youth Adjustment was used. The sample consisted of 358 biethnic adolescents in 5th and 6th grade in South Korea. The meanage was 11.41 years old. Approximately 60% of the participants were in 5th grade and 51.68% were girls. ResultsThe results of LPA showed that familial ethnic socialization, peer discrimination, and school multicultural climate formed two distinct profiles in the current sample. These profiles were characterized as contexts of high and low biethnic acceptance. Biethnic adolescents in the context of high biethnic acceptance were significantly more satisfied with their lives than those in the context of low biethnic acceptance.Further, the positive association between biethnic iaffirmation and life satisfaction was more pronounced among adolescents in the context of low biethnic acceptance. ConclusionsFindings suggest the importance of promoting biethnic acceptance across family, peer, and school settings for adolescents' biethnic affirmation and life satisfaction.

Ethnic socialization, identity, and values associated with U.S. Latino/a young adults' prosocial behaviors.

Given the increasing saliency of Latino/a young adults in the United States, there is a need to consider developmental theories that may better capture the cultural mechanisms by which individuals from this specific ethnic group are socialized to engage in prosocial behaviors. The inclusion of cultural processes (including identity and values) might be particularly important in models that investigate family socialization processes and prosocial behaviors, because scholars have suggested that cultural values may be transmitted via parental practices and beliefs, including ethnic socialization practices. Participants included 381 U.S. Latino/a young adults (54.2% female; Mage = 21.99). Young adults completed measures of family ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and endorsement of familism and respect values. They also completed a multidimensional measure of prosocial behavior, assessing different types and targets of helping. Structural equation modeling was conducted, and there was support for the importance of ethnic identity and cultural values as mechanisms through which ethnic socialization is associated with prosocial behaviors. Gender moderated these relations, such that family respect played a relatively more prominent mediating role for men, whereas familism played a mediating role for both men and women. The findings emphasize the central role of familial ethnic socialization and cultural processes in fostering prosocial behaviors among U.S. Latino/as but reveal specific patterns of relations based on gender and on target of helping. These findings highlight the need for more research on gender-based and relation-based patterns of prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latinos/a young adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic Socialization, Family Cohesion, and Ethnic Identity Development Over Time among Latinx Adolescents.

Family socialization of one's ethnic culture is essential for ethnic identity development among Latinx adolescents. However, less is known about how the likely changes in family interaction that transpire during adolescence may impact this socialization process. A three-year longitudinal study of 148 Latinx adolescents (ages 13-14; 53% females) examined how changes in youth's family ethnic socialization experiences and sense of family cohesion were related to two dimensions of their ethnic identity development (i.e., exploration and resolution). Youth's family ethnic socialization experiences and sense of family cohesion remained stable, while their exploration and resolution increased across three years. More ethnic socialization experiences at Wave 1 predicted higher initial levels and stability of ethnic identity exploration over time. However, more ethnic socialization at Wave 1 predicted higher initial levels of resolution and predicted less resolution development as youth progressed through adolescence. Among youth who perceived less ethnic socialization, a greater sense of family cohesion was associated with more initial exploration; this compensatory effect was only present at Wave 1. These results illustrate how distinct aspects of the family context uniquely and interactively inform ethnic identity exploration and resolution development.

Parenting Practices and Adjustment Profiles among Latino Youth in Rural Areas of the United States

On average, Latino adolescents in the United States (U.S.) are at an elevated risk for developing internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and engaging in binge drinking. Latino youth in rural U.S. contexts may be particularly at risk. Parent–adolescent relationships may be associated with each of these indicators of maladjustment, as well as the co-occurrence of these issues. In the current study, adjustment profiles based on internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and binge drinking among 198 Latino adolescents (Mage = 15.90, SD = 1.47) living in rural areas of the United States were examined. Further, the association of adjustment profiles with parental behavioral involvement, parental monitoring, and familial ethnic socialization was tested. Four adjustment profiles emerged from a cluster analysis (i.e., low risk, internalizing risk, externalizing risk, co-occurring risk). Results indicated that adolescents in the co-occurring risk profile reported the lowest levels of parental monitoring compared to the other three profiles, lower familial ethnic socialization compared to the low risk and internalizing risk profiles, and lower parental behavioral involvement compared to the internalizing risk profile. The findings have implications for family-based, culturally informed interventions to encourage positive adjustment among Latino adolescents in rural areas of the United States.

Does violence beget violence? The role of family ethnic socialization and intergroup bias among youth in a setting of protracted intergroup conflict

Does violence beget violence among youth in a setting of protracted conflict? Framed by a developmental intergroup approach, this paper examines the mediating roles of family ethnic socialization and intergroup bias. Two time points from 466 (50% female/50% male, 51% Catholic/49% Protestant) 14- to 16-year-olds in Northern Ireland were analyzed. Bootstrapped chain mediation found that previous experience with sectarianism, or intergroup violence, was positively related to family ethnic socialization, which predicted later intergroup bias, which was related to higher levels of adolescent participation in sectarian antisocial behavior. Findings identify the importance of family processes in the link from experiencing to committing sectarian acts. Implications for preventing youth participation in sectarianism are discussed.

Ethnic-racial discrimination, family ethnic socialization and Latinx children’s emotion competence

Emotion competence is vital for success in a wide range of domains. Although a large body of research has demonstrated that universal socialization processes, such as parenting, influence children’s emotion competence, few studies have identified risk and protective factors that may also contribute to the development of emotion competence, particularly among children of Latin descent. This study evaluated hypothesized negative relations between Latinx children’s perceived experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination (ERD) and later emotion competence as indexed by children’s emotion knowledge and coping skills. Further, we explored both direct and interactive effects of family ethnic-racial socialization (FES) on Latinx children’s emotion competence in the wake of ERD. Latinx children (N = 100, 44% female) reported on their perceived experiences of ERD at age 7 and parents reported on FES at age 8. Emotion competence was assessed at age 8 using a laboratory assessment of the child’s emotion recognition and labeling skills to index emotion knowledge. Parents reported on children’s positive and maladaptive coping. Latinx children’s perceived experiences of ERD were related to lower levels of emotion knowledge and higher levels of maladaptive coping 1 year later. FES was also associated with higher levels of positive coping. Importantly, FES moderated the effect of ERD on children’s maladaptive coping, but not on children’s emotion knowledge or positive coping. The relation between ERD and maladaptive coping was significant at high FES levels, but not at low FES levels. These findings document the incidence and negative impact of young, Latinx children’s experiences of ERD on their emotion competence and highlight the influence of FES on Latinx children’s emotional development in contexts of ERD.

Parental competitive victimhood and interethnic discrimination among their children: The mediating role of ethnic socialization and symbolic threat to the in-group.

Links between competitive victimhood and discrimination are well documented. However, the mechanisms how victimhood beliefs remain relevant for decades and how conflict survivors can shape attitudes and behaviours of the post-conflict generations are little understood. Following the Transgenerational Transmission Hypothesis and the Integrated Threat Theory, we propose that the link between parental competitive victimhood and discrimination among their children is mediated through family ethnic socialization and symbolic threat to the in-group. Participants were families that included youth (N=227) and their parents (172 mothers, 150 fathers) in Vukovar, Croatia. Amultiple group, chain mediation model was conducted with parental competitive victimhood as the predictor; youth ethnic socialization and symbolic threat as sequential mediators; and youth tendency to discriminate against the outgroup and perceived ethnic in-group discrimination as outcomes. The findings revealed significant indirect effects of the competitive victimhood on both outcomes, via the proposed mediators. The only difference in the model between majority Croats and minority Serbs was the path from symbolic threat to tendency to discriminate, which was positive and significant for both groups, but stronger among Croats. The findings imply that interventions in post-conflict settings need to address family ethnic socialization processes in addition to directly working with youth.