Family Background Characteristics Research Articles

Adolescent Residential Mobility and Life Satisfaction in Emerging Adulthood

Moving in adolescence could be a stressful experience, potentially disturbing development into adulthood. This study investigated the relationship between residential mobility in adolescence and life satisfaction in young adulthood, focusing on moving timing, frequency, and distance, using (retrospective) longitudinal German survey data (N = 2998, mean age = 20.18, 45.8% boy, 6.8% first-generation immigrant, 31.0% children of immigrants). Moving twice or more in adolescence was linked to lower life satisfaction in young adulthood, even after controlling for family background characteristics. Moving distance was unrelated to life satisfaction. Exploratory analyses showed that particularly for children of immigrants, frequent moving was related to lower life satisfaction. Since frequent moving in adolescence was more common in disadvantaged families, frequent moving could reinforce social inequalities into young adulthood.

Human Capital for Economic Development: A Study of Education Production Performance (EPP) in Khairpur

The analysis of education production performance involves evaluating the inputs of faculty, teachers, and students to determine the academic achievement of students. This study aims to estimate the education production performance of both state and private higher secondary schools in Khairpur and identify the factors that affect instructional outcomes in the region. Education is crucial for development, as a high-quality education system is essential for increasing people's skills, knowledge, and abilities, ultimately contributing to the growth of human capital. In a developing country like Pakistan, where policymakers face challenges such as a rapidly growing population, low levels of education, and limited resources, improving educational efficiency is critical to achieving progress. A thorough understanding of the factors that contribute to instructional success is essential in this regard. To construct the model, a cross-sectional dataset was used, and a standard least squares method was employed with annual examination results as the output variable and school inputs, student characteristics, family background, and teacher characteristics as the input variables for both private and public schools. The results of the study indicate that student characteristics, teacher qualities, and family background, except for the mother's education, career, and income, have a statistically significant impact on students' academic performance. The findings of this study have significant policy implications for Khairpur and Pakistan as a whole. Improving educational outcomes will be critical in enhancing the human capital stock, which, in turn, is essential for economic growth and improving living standards. By understanding the factors that contribute to instructional success, policymakers can devise effective strategies to address the challenges faced by the education sector and improve overall educational efficiency.

Educational attainment, family background and the emergence of pain gradients in adulthood

Current studies have indicated that the number of individuals living with pain has risen in recent years, with nearly half of all adults in some countries living with some form of pain. Such trends have prompted researchers to explore differences in pain across different sociodemographic groups, with a dominant focus on educational attainment. However, much of the studies fail to consider the confounding role of early life characteristics, such as family background. Using data on over 400,000 individuals from the UK Biobank, we look at how educational attainment is associated with nine different domains of pain (headache, facial, neck, back, hip, knee, stomach, all over, and no pain). Ultimately, we find that compared to those with no educational credentials, education is associated with anywhere between a 0.1–15% change in the likelihood of reporting pain, depending on pain type and education level, with the greatest change occurring in those with the highest level. Yet, when accounting for family background characteristics in the form of sibling fixed effects, nearly all relationships between education and pain fell by either 50% or were eliminated. We ultimately conclude that failure to consider early life characteristics, such as family background characteristics may lead to inflated estimates of pain, and that future research should delve into early life exposures and their influence on pain in adulthood.

Statistical analysis and evaluation of Greek students’ background determinants on Science literacy

Abstract Pisa is a program developed by the OECD. The first time it appeared was in 2000. Since then more than 90 countries and about 3,000,000 students worldwide have participated (OECD forum). Students participate every 3 years and are assessed if they can successfully face and solve problems from everyday situations using the basic knowledge they have acquired from the subjects they have been taught at school. The main goal of this paper was to investigate the determinants of student performance. In particular, how students' characteristics, family background, and some school characteristics (type of school, geographic region, curriculum, and class size) affect science performance. We used PISA 2018 data for the case of Greece, as this country requires further research because Greek students perform below the average mean across OECD countries. The sample consisted of 6403 Greek students aged 15-16, who were enrolled in 242 schools. The analysis was carried out with the SPSS statistical program using multiple regression models (OLS) as well as Quantile Regression (QR) method for a more comprehensive study to evaluate whether the above variables affect in the same or different way on low and high-achieving students. Results indicated that family background and student characteristics affect students' performance significantly but to a different degree between high and low-performing students. In contrast, class size was shown to not affect almost the entire performance distribution. Moreover, access to material goods not directly related to education showed a negative effect, instead, the socioeconomic status of the family (ESCS) is a strong positive predictor of scientific literacy. Finally, the Greek education system suffers from several disparities both between different study programs and geographical regions. The above conclusions indicate that educational legislative reforms should be targeted and take into account the variance of student achievement with a focus to reduce the gap between high and low-performing students, which will lead to a robust education system. Keywords: PISA 2018, Quantile Regression (QR), OLS, Scientific literacy, Greek students.

Childhood Abuse, Intimate Partner Violence in Young Adulthood, and Welfare Receipt by Midlife.

To investigate prospective associations between type of child abuse (physical, sexual, both), timing (childhood, young adulthood, both), and welfare receipt into middle-age. Database linkage study using the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Kindergarten Children cohort born in 1980 and government administrative databases (N = 3020). We assessed parental tax returns, family and personal background characteristics (1982-1987). At age 22 years, participants answered retrospective questionnaires on experienced childhood abuse (physical, sexual abuse < age 18 years) and intimate partner violence (IPV) (ages 18-22). Main outcome was years on social assistance, on the basis of participant tax returns (ages 23-37 years). Analysis included weights for population representativeness. Of 1690 participants (54.4% females) with available data, 22.4% reported childhood abuse only, 14.5% IPV only, and 18.5% both. Prevalence of childhood physical, sexual, and both was 20.4%, 12.2%, and 8.3%, respectively. Adjusting for socioeconomic background and individual characteristics, we found that childhood physical abuse alone and physical or sexual abuse combined were associated with a two-fold risk of welfare receipt, as compared to never-abused (adjusted incidence risk ratio 2.43, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.65-3.58; and adjusted incidence risk ratio 2.04, 95% CI, 1.29-3.23, respectively). Repeated abuse (childhood abuse combined with adult IPV) had a three-fold risk (adjusted incidence ratio 3.59, 95% CI, 2.39-5.37). Abuse across several developmental periods (childhood and young adulthood) is associated with increased risks of long-term welfare receipt, independently of socioeconomic background. Results indicate a dose-response association. Early prevention and targeted identification are crucial to preventing economic adversity that may potentially lead to intergenerational poverty.

The relationship between individual characteristics and practice behaviour within an adaptive arithmetic learning program

AbstractBackgroundAlthough research on mathematics learning programs has taken off in recent years, little is known about how different person characteristics are related to practice behaviour with such programs. When implementing a mathematics learning program in the classroom, it might be important to know whether students with specific characteristics need more encouragement to make use of this learning opportunity.ObjectivesUsing a supply‐use model, we analysed the predictive power of students' cognitive characteristics (prior mathematics knowledge), personality traits (conscientiousness), motivational‐affective characteristics (mathematics self‐concept and mathematics anxiety), and family background characteristics (socioeconomic status and migration background) for practising with an adaptive arithmetic learning program.MethodsWe used longitudinal data from 203 fifth graders from seven non‐academic‐track schools in Germany. Practice behaviour, measured by completed tasks in the learning program, was recorded weekly for every student over a period of 22 weeks.Results and ConclusionsThe results of our multilevel analyses showed that mathematics anxious students practised less with the program. We did not find any relationship with the other characteristics.TakeawaysOur results suggest that mathematics anxious students need more encouragement when practising with a mathematics learning program; otherwise, they do not get the chance to benefit from the use.

Risk factors of adolescent exposure to violence in Burkina Faso

BackgroundGlobally violence against children and adolescents is a significant public health problem. Since children rely on family for early learning and socialization, evidence of the factors associated with exposure to violence within households may inform the development of policies and measures to prevent violence and aid the victims of violence. This study examines the risk and protective factors associated with adolescents’ exposure to violence at home and how these differ by gender and age in four regions of Burkina Faso.Materials and methodsWe used data from the baseline survey of the Child-Sensitive Social Protection Programme (CSSPP) conducted in four regions of Burkina Faso. The CSSPP is a cash transfer programme accompanied by complimentary nutrition, and water and sanitation interventions to address multidimensional child poverty. We employed bivariate and multivariable regression analysis on a sample of 2222 adolescents aged 10–19 to explore the risk and protective factors associated with exposure to violence.ResultsResults show that exposure to psychological violence (22.7%) was more common within the households when compared to physical violence (9.1%). Adolescent girls reported more exposure to physical violence while boys reported more exposure to psychological violence. Significant risk factors associated with the likelihood of exposure to violence among girls are orphanhood, living in a household receiving safety nets and living in a Muslim-majority community. Among boys, age, school attendance, disability, a household receiving safety nets, sharing a household with a depressed individual, and living in a Muslim-majority community, were associated with exposure to violence.ConclusionsThese gender-specific findings highlight the importance of family background characteristics and can be used to inform and strengthen the targeting of vulnerable children and adolescents in interventions aimed at reducing exposure to violence against children.

Impact of Family Background and Individual Characteristics on Vocational High School Choice in South Korea: A Gender Analysis

At the end of compulsory school, adolescents in many industrialised countries must makean important and far-reaching decision that strongly influences their future working life. Few of the many studies of school choice in South Korea have empirically analysed the choice of type of upper secondary school and almost none have paid attention family background and individual characteristics. This paper does so for both boys and girls completing compulsory lower secondary education, using 11 years’ data from the Korea Education and Employment Panel (KEEP) of the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training from a period before recent Korean vocational educational policy changes. We use a Probit model to deal with binary variables. Key variables considered include teacher assessments of students, father’s income, father’s education, spending on private tutoring at the lower secondary level, and the number of siblings, these last two never previously analyzed. In addition, to gender analysis this paper confirmsprevious results that parental social status is a major determinant of high school choice between general and vocational education. The key gender result is that fathers’ educational attainment negatively and significantly affects females more than males, and that fathers’ high income more negatively and significantly affects males than females in nonattendance at vocational high school. This paper also confirms previous findings that females were more motivated than males to enroll in vocational high school. Vocational education better meets females’ needs than males’, especially those not well supported by their parents. These findings imply that future research on both Korea and other countries needs to pay much more attention to family and individual characteristics and to differences between genders.

Sexual Violence against Children in Rwanda: Prevalence and Associated Factors

Background&#x0D; Information and data on the burden and factors associated with violence against children are critical in designing and implementing preventive strategies and interventions. This study aimed to examine patterns of the prevalence of sexual violence (SV) against children in Rwanda and investigate associated factors to contribute to the knowledge about violence against children in Rwanda.&#x0D; Methods &#x0D; A sample of 1,110 children aged 13-17 years from a cross-sectional national survey done in Rwanda in 2015 was analysed. Weighted descriptive statistics were applied to describe the prevalence of SV against children, and weighted logistic regression allowed us to investigate factors associated with it.&#x0D; Results &#x0D; Over eight percent (8.4%) of all children, including about three percent (2.8%) of male children and around five percent (5.6%) of female children, reported having experienced SV within the last twelve months. Being a female child, having a romantic partner, and not attending school were some factors associated with SV against children in Rwanda.&#x0D; Conclusion &#x0D; Female children reported more SV than male children. Factors associated with sexual violence pertained to the child’s characteristics, family or household background characteristics, and community relations. The study findings call for an urgent need to prevent SV against children through awareness raising about it amongst children and the general public.&#x0D; Rwanda J Med Health Sci 2022;5(3):302-314

Sibling group size and BMI over the life course: Evidence from four British cohort studies.

Only children, here defined as individuals growing up without siblings, are a small but growing demographic subgroup. Existing research has consistently shown that, on average, only children have higher body mass index (BMI) than individuals who grow up with siblings. How this difference develops with age is unclear and existing evidence is inconclusive regarding the underlying mechanisms. We investigate BMI trajectories for only children and those with siblings up to late adolescence for four British birth cohorts and across adulthood for three cohorts. We use data on BMI from ages 2-63 years (cohort born 1946); 7-55 years (born 1958); 10-46 (born 1970) and 3-17 years (born 2000-2002). Using mixed effects regression separately for each cohort, we estimate the change in BMI by age comparing only children and those with siblings. The results show higher average BMI among only children in each cohort, yet the difference is substantively small and limited to school age and adolescence. The association between sibling status and BMI at age 10/11 is not explained by differential health behaviours (physical activity, inactivity and diet) or individual or family background characteristics in any of the cohorts. Although persistent across cohorts, and despite the underlying mechanism remaining unexplained, the substantively small magnitude of the observed difference and the convergence of the trajectories by early adulthood in all cohorts raises doubts about whether the difference in BMI between only children and siblings in the UK context should be of research or clinical concern. Future research could usefully be directed more at whether only children experience elevated rates of disease, for which high BMI is a risk factor, at different stages of the life course and across contexts.

It runs in the family?

Family background has been shown to be a strong determinant of educational attainment, yet relatively little is known about the role that family background plays in PhD attainment or in the selection into academic careers. In this study, we estimate sibling correlations from Finnish full population register data to comprehensively assess the importance of family background in selection into academia. Our results show that family background accounts for over a third of the overall variation in becoming a PhD and subsequently an academic — a share which is up to four times as large as implied by conventional comparisons by parental education. However, we did not find evidence that family background would be an exceptionally strong determinant of doctoral outcomes when compared to other educational outcomes. Our findings further suggest that sibling similarities in PhD attainment and academic careers may largely be attributed to sibling similarities in prior educational achievement rather than to other family background characteristics.

Home literacy in the digital era: The role of mobile screen media frequency in a U.S. state

AbstractStudies suggest that mobile screen media can play a positive role in young children's language and literacy development. However, the role of mobile screen media in the home literacy environment of pre‐school aged children has not been widely explored. Currently, it is unclear whether the amount of time on mobile devices has any association with their language and literacy development. The present study therefore explored the frequency of mobile digital media use and its relationship to children's language and emergent literacy skills, and whether and how child and family characteristics may have mediated this relationship. The sample consisted of 881 children in Massachusetts (Mage = 5.16; 69% White, non‐Hispanic; 48% female) who completed language and literacy assessments on letter/word recognition, phonological awareness, vocabulary, syntax and language. Parents completed a survey on their child's literacy and technology activities at home. Results suggest that any associations between mobile screen media and language and literacy development may not be explained by quantity of use, but rather the nature of use. No robust statistically significant associations were found between the frequency of mobile media device use and children's language and literacy skills after controlling for key child and family background characteristics. Although rhyme awareness scores were significantly related to frequency of mobile device use, the association was weak. Thus, further research should explore types of activities, app features, and interactions that are important for children's development of language and literacy skills when using mobile media devices.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Pre‐school aged children are spending an increasing amount of time with mobile screens. Mobile screen media can play a positive role in young children's language and literacy development. What this paper adds This paper describes the frequency in which pre‐school children in one US state use mobile screen media. The results of this paper provide suggest that there are no associations between mobile screen media and language and literacy development. This paper discusses how several home environmental factors play a role in children's early development of language and literacy. Implications for practice and/or policy Practitioners and teachers working with families of pre‐school children can focus on supporting the quality of interactions children have with mobile media rather than focusing on limiting the amount of time children spend with mobile media. Parents, practitioners and teachers should become familiar with educational media available and learn about effective ways to use it especially among children from low‐income household who engage with mobile media at higher rates.

TIMSS 2019 자료를 활용한 한국과 미국 중학생들의 수학 사교육 참여 요인 비교

The purpose of this study was to investigate the major factors affecting the participation of Korean and American middle school students in private supplementary education in mathematics using the TIMSS 2019 data. The random forest method was used to extract, compare, and analyze the key factors predicting student’s participation in private supplementary education in mathematics on the data of 3,658 Korean middle school students and 6,960 American middle school students who participated in the TIMSS 2019 survey. Academic achievement, personal characteristics, family background, and school characteristics were found to be important predictors in both countries, but the effect of each factor on the probability of participating in private supplementary education was different between the two countries. The results of this study reconfirmed that students in Korea tend to participate in private supplementary education with 'competitive motives' whereas the United States, students engage in private supplementary education with 'supplementary motives'. Results suggest that when devising policies against private supplementary tutoring, it is necessary to diagnose the state and causes in each individual country and devise customized policies for each country.&#x0D;

Family Background, Educational Qualifications, and Labour Market Attainment: Evidence from Danish Siblings

Abstract Previous studies on how family background affects labour market outcomes among offspring with similar formal educational qualifications are limited either by the way in which they measure family background or by the detail level by which they measure educational attainment. To address these limitations, we develop a comprehensive approach based on sibling similarities in labour market outcomes. Applying the approach to high-quality register data on all Danes born 1965–1971, we examine the direct effect––other than through extremely granular education measures––of all combined effects of family background on occupational status and wages. Our analyses show that fine-grained education measures account for more than 90 per cent of the total family background effect on occupational status, while for wages they account for merely three-quarters. Half of the direct effect on wages can be explained by sibling similarities in occupational attainment, suggesting that direct family background effects on wages operate equally within and between occupations. However, observed family background characteristics account only for a minor portion of the direct effect on wages, pointing to that family-based advantages in the labour Danish market result from largely unidentified family characteristics. We discuss different mechanisms that may account for this pattern of results.

Estimation of Education Production Function: A Case Study of Selected Villages in District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Education production function relates school, teacher and student inputs to measure the student output. The objective of this study is to investigate the determinants of educational outcome in the study area by estimating an education production function for Government and Private higher secondary schools in Nowshera. Education plays an essential and important role in the development process, as a high-quality of education system is a key element by which a developing country can expands skills, knowledge and capacities of individuals, thus, increasing stock of human capital. Human capital is a key element in economic progress and raising standard of living. Pakistan is perhaps the country of the world for which efficiency in education is most important, as policymakers are faced with the combination of a rapidly growing population, low level of education and limited resources. Without high quality educational system and an accurate understanding of the determinants of educational outcomes, it will be difficult to enhance efficiency. For this purpose, cross sectional data and OLS was used to specify production function, using annual examination scores as output (dependent variable), while using school inputs, student characteristics, family background and teacher characteristics are as inputs (independent variables) in the private and public schools. Results of the study shows that student’s characteristics, teacher’s characteristics and family background except mother education, profession and income, has positive and statistical significant impact on students academic performances. The results of this study have important policy implications for Nowshera in particular and for Pakistan in general.

A Study on the Background Characteristics of Family, School, and Community by Career Preparation Group of Elementary School Students

목적 본 연구는 초등학생의 가정배경, 학교배경, 지역사회배경과 진로준비 수준과의 관계를 진로준비 수준에 따른 잠재집단 분석을 통해 파악하고자 하는 데 그 목적이 있다. 방법 연구대상은 &#65378;대구교육실태연구(2016)&#65379;의 초등 남학생 672명(49.3%)과 여학생 692명(50.7%), 총 1,364명이 응답한 진로 준비 변인에 해당하는 문항에 대한 통계 자료이다. 자료처리는 SPSS와 Jamovi 프로그램을 이용하여 빈도분석, 요인분석, 상관분석을 실시하고 Mplus 프로그램을 이용하여 진로준비에 따른 잠재집단을 추출해 각 잠재집단의 특성을 분석하였다. 결과 초등학생의 진로준비성 집단별 특성을 살펴본 결과 진로준비성이 높은 집단이 부모-자녀 관계가 가장 긍정적인 것으로 확인되었다. 진로준비성 집단별 학교배경 특성을 살펴본 결과 진로준비성이 높은 집단이 학교에 대한 만족이 높은 것으로 나타났으며 특히 또래집단 및 교사와의 사회적 관계가 초등학생의 진로준비와 긴밀한 관련을 맺고 있음을 확인하였다. 결론 지역별 학생의 진로준비성의 차이를 살펴본 결과 진로준비성 집단의 구성에 있어 지역 간 차이가 나타났으며, 이는 진로교육 정책 수립에 있어 지역화의 필요성을 시사한다.

The Impact of Education on Income Inequality in China: Measurement and Decomposition

In recent years, while maintaining steady and rapid economic development, the government has also achieved some results in adjusting the income distribution gap, but income distribution equity is still one of the focus issues of public concern. Since education is one of the important channels to obtain human capital and has an important impact on residents’ income level, this paper attempts to explore the impact of education on income inequality in China from the perspective of opportunity equality. Firstly, this paper uses the instrumental variable method to measure the contribution share of education in the income distribution inequality of Chinese residents, and further decomposes the proportion of reasonable and unreasonable components under the framework of opportunity equality theory. The measurement results based on the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) data in 2017 show that: (1) The income inequality caused by education accounts for 50.87% of the total income inequality, and the proportion coefficient has significant age heterogeneity, indicating that the difference in education level is one of the important reasons for the uneven income distribution of Chinese residents. (2) Among the income inequality caused by education in China, the unreasonable component accounts for about 44%. This part of inequality is mainly determined by environmental factors for which individuals should not bear responsibility, such as family background, social environment and individual characteristics. In the lower age group, the proportion of income inequality caused by education attributed to environmental factors is higher. (3) The decomposition results based on the Shapley value method show that among all environmental factors, the contribution share of family cultural factors is as high as 42.94%, followed by family economic factors and social environmental factors (23.50% and 23.36% respectively), and the remaining 10.20% is attributed to individual characteristic factors. There are some differences in the contribution share of various environmental factors in different age groups. In addition, the longitudinal comparison of the measurement results based on CGSS data in different years shows that the above main indicators fluctuate irregularly in a small range, and the basic conclusions of this paper are robust. This study examines the important role of education in the income distribution of Chinese residents from the perspective of equity, and further explores the causes of unreasonable and unfair parts of income inequality caused by education, which provides further theoretical support and factual basis for the implementation of relevant policies to promote income distribution equity.

Parents' cardiovascular risk factors are related to overweight and obesity in young Brazilians with type 1 diabetes

AimTo identify family background characteristics and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors linked to overweight and obesity in Brazilian with type 1 diabetes (T1D). MethodsWe performed cross-sectional anthropometric and laboratory analyses in young individuals with T1D. ResultsAmong 181 participants, 87 were women and 94 were men (64%/78% normal weight, 27%/15% overweight and 9%/7% obese). Obese men were older; were more likely to be Black; had higher triglyceride levels and diastolic blood pressure (BP), lower estimated glucose disposal rate (eGDR) and higher prevalence of first-degree relatives (FDR) with hypertension and early CVD. Overweight and obese women were more likely to have lower eGDR, and obese women were more likely to have FDR with obesity. ConclusionOne third of young people with T1D were overweight or obese. Excess weight was associated with family history (FH) of obesity for women and FH of early CVD or hypertension for men. BMI was related to decreased insulin sensitivity in both genders, but only men with T1D had metabolic impairment. Our data highlight the importance of considering family background in individuals with T1D.

Family Background Characteristics and Student Achievement: Does School Ethos Play a Compensatory Role?

It is a well-known fact that family background characteristics affect school achievement, and according to Swedish law, school should play a compensatory role to outweigh such differences. Previous research has demonstrated that a strong school ethos is associated with higher student achievement, but whether school ethos can play a compensatory role for family background has not been investigated to the same extent. This study examines whether the predictive capacity of students’ family background on school achievement is moderated by school ethos. Data were derived from 9,349 ninth grade students (15–16 years) and 2,176 teachers in 159 school units in Stockholm. Multilevel linear regression analyses showed that family background characteristics, as well as school ethos, were associated with student achievement. School ethos did not, however, moderate the association between family background and school achievement. The results suggest that school ethos does not play a compensatory role, but rather, promotes school achievement for all students alike.

Gender differences in the relationship between perceived discrimination and personality traits in young adulthood: Evidence using sibling fixed effects

RationaleAlthough perceived discrimination (PD) is known to be associated with personality traits, family background characteristics may confound this association. Moreover, little is known about whether the relationship differs by gender. ObjectiveThis study investigates whether the association between PD and personality traits is confounded by family background characteristics. Given gender differences in contexts and perceptions of discrimination as well as personality traits, this study also explores whether the association between PD and personality traits differs for men and women. MethodsUsing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, this study examines the association between PD and Big Five personality traits among young adults. This study uses sibling fixed effects models with a lagged dependent variable to account for unobservable family-level characteristics, such as genetics, parental characteristics, family environment, and childhood social contexts. ResultsSibling fixed effects estimates showed that PD was associated with lower levels of conscientiousness and extraversion and higher levels of neuroticism. There were also gender differences such that PD was associated with lower conscientiousness only for women and lower extraversion only for men. The positive association with neuroticism was apparent for both men and women. ConclusionThis study suggests that the association between PD and personality traits is generally not confounded by stable family-level characteristics shared by siblings. This study also documents gender differences in the relationship between PD and personality traits. Given substantial implications of personality for a broad range of outcomes, especially among young adults, the findings of this study reaffirm the commitment of the whole society to eradicate any form of discrimination.