Scorpion Family Research Articles

A Fast Method for Detection of Fake Venoms and Investigation of Interspecies Variation Using Venoms of Androctonus, Buthus, and Leiurus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) Species.

Within the scorpion family Buthidae, some of the most dangerous venomous genera are Androctonus (A), Buthus (B), and Leiurus (L). This venom is valuable raw material for numerous therapeutic formulations because of its pharmacological potential; however, because of its high prices in the global market, fake "venom mixes" are being made to market illegally, and it is important that these unknown mixes be evaluated. A fast and accurate response to the request for this identification is necessary. This study was conducted in Turkey in 2022. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is a linear positive-ionization mode was used for identification of scorpion species. The mass spectra of the three scorpion venoms were examined in detail. The peptide and protein profiles in the venoms of congenerous three scorpion venoms and the proportional differences in these venoms were investigated. For interspecific variation, a principal component analysis of all venoms was conducted, and variance values and distance-proximity indices were determined. The top three peptide masses in the highest relative abundance for A. australis, B. mardochei, and L. quinquestriatus quinquestriatus, respectively, were 6901, 7431, and 7447; 4238, 5283, and 4055; and 3828, 7868, and 6799 Da. While the variance rate between A. australis and the other two venoms was 40%, this rate was 38% between B. mordochei and L. quinquestriatus quinquestriatus venoms. A very simple protocol of species identification using scorpion venom samples was created using recent advances in MALDI-TOF MS.

Old and cold: Diverse phylogenomic datasets support an ancient transantarctic dispersive route on the scorpion family Bothriuridae in temperate Gondwana

In this contribution we try to unveil the diversification process of Bothriuridae in temperate Gondwana through dated phylogenomic analyses using UCE and transcriptomics, and including in the analyses species of genera Urophonius and Cercophonius, the most closely related genera of Bothriuridae from South America and Australia respectively. Additionally we explored the hypothesis that the winter activity period of some species of Urophonius, as well as the cold environmental preferences of this genus, could be related to the climatic conditions of the time frame and area in which it evolved. Genus Urophonius was recovered as sister group to Cercophonius using amino acids and UCE. The time frame obtained for the split between South American and Australian bothriurids is 94 Ma., which suggests a dispersal event through temperate Gondwana, before the final breakup of the land bridge of South America-Antarctica-Australia ca. 35 Ma. The split between summer and winter species of Urophonius, taking place at 64 Ma, is considered representative to the turnover time from the summer activity period to the winter activity period in some species of the genus. This time frame is compatible with a period of global warming of the late Cretaceous greenhouse episode that could have triggered this change.

Scorpion Peptides and Ion Channels: An Insightful Review of Mechanisms and Drug Development.

The Buthidae family of scorpions consists of arthropods with significant medical relevance, as their venom contains a diverse range of biomolecules, including neurotoxins that selectively target ion channels in cell membranes. These ion channels play a crucial role in regulating physiological processes, and any disturbance in their activity can result in channelopathies, which can lead to various diseases such as autoimmune, cardiovascular, immunological, neurological, and neoplastic conditions. Given the importance of ion channels, scorpion peptides represent a valuable resource for developing drugs with targeted specificity for these channels. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the structure and classification of ion channels, the action of scorpion toxins on these channels, and potential avenues for future research. Overall, this review highlights the significance of scorpion venom as a promising source for discovering novel drugs with therapeutic potential for treating channelopathies.

Comparative analysis of mitochondrial genomes reveals family-specific architectures and molecular features in scorpions (Arthropoda: Arachnida: Scorpiones)

Scorpions are a group of arachnids with great evolutionary success that comprise more than 2,000 described species. Mitochondrial genomes have been little studied in this clade. We describe and compare different scorpion mitochondrial genomes and analyze their architecture and molecular characteristics. We assembled eight new scorpion mitochondrial genomes from transcriptomic datasets, annotated them, predicted the secondary structures of tRNAs, and compared the nucleotide composition, codon usage, and relative synonymous codon usage of 16 complete scorpion mitochondrial genomes. Lastly, we provided a phylogeny based on all mitochondrial protein coding genes. We characterized the mitogenomes in detail and reported particularities such as dissimilar synteny in the family Buthidae compared to other scorpions, unusual tRNA secondary structures, and unconventional start and stop codons in all scorpions. Our comparative analysis revealed that scorpion mitochondrial genomes exhibit different architectures and features depending on taxonomic identity. We highlight the parvorder Buthida, particularly the family Buthidae, as it invariably exhibited different mitogenome features such as synteny, codon usage, and AT-skew compared to the parvorder Iurida that included the rest of the scorpion families we analyzed in this study. Our results provide a better understanding of the evolution of mitogenome features and phylogenetic relationships in scorpions.

The first chromosome study of the genera Calchas Birula, 1899 and Neocalchas Yağmur, Soleglad, Fet & Kovařík, 2013 (Scorpiones: Iuridae)

The chromosomes of two species belonging to the scorpion family Iuridae are studied for the first time. Both analysed species displayed achiasmatic meiosis and no morphologically differentiated sex chromosomes; these features are typical for all scorpions. Both species possessed monocentric chromosomes, a characteristic specific to the entire parvorder Iurida. The karyotype of Calchas nordmanni Birula, 1899 is composed of 82 chromosomes, and the diploid number of chromosomes in Neocalchas gruberi is 40. Despite this conspicuous difference in 2n chromosome morphology is mainly acrocentric. Both species possess two pairs of the 18S rDNA clusters identified by FISH. A higher number of rDNA loci may represent an ancestral state for the parvorder Iurida.

Climate Relicts: Asian Scorpion Family Pseudochactidae Survived Miocene Aridification in Caves of the Annamite Mountains

Abstract Southeast Asia is a hotspot of karst systems in the tropics and many relictual taxa have been documented in caves across the region. The ancient, relictual scorpion family Pseudochactidae Gromov 1998 has a disjunct distribution and includes two hypogean subfamilies from caves in the Khammouan-Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng Karst in the northern Annamite (Trường Sơn) Mountains of Laos and Vietnam, and one epigean subfamily from Central Asia. A recent revision identified six species in the family; however, how these taxa dispersed and diversified into Southeast Asian cave systems has not been tested. In the present contribution, the phylogeny of Pseudochactidae is reconstructed using three mitochondrial and three nuclear markers and 140 morphological characters, divergence time and ancestral range estimation analyses are conducted, and the evolution of troglomorphic characters is investigated. Results confirm a previous hypothesis that Pseudochactidae originated in Eurasia, most likely near the Tajik block in the Carboniferous, supporting the ‘Out of Eurasia’ hypothesis and contradicting the ‘Eurogondwana’ and ‘Out of India’ hypotheses for the origin of Southeast Asian scorpions. Pseudochactidae dispersed across Southeast Asia after the collision of the Cimmerian continent and Indochina with Eurasia in the Late Jurassic. Colonization of Southeast Asian caves began in the Late Cretaceous and was completed by the Miocene. The onset of aridification in Southeast Asia during the Late Miocene resulted in the extinction of epigean Pseudochactidae, whereas hypogean members of the family likely survived within caves in the limestone massifs of the Annamite Mountains, supporting the ‘Climate Relict’ hypothesis.

Nutritional Composition of Some Commonly Available Aquatic Edible Insects of Assam, India.

The nutritive value of five edible aquatic insects of Assam-Hemipterans; water bug (Diplonychus rusticus Fabricius) family belostomatidae; giant water bug (Lethocerus indicus Lepeletier and Serville) family belostomatidae; water scorpion (Laccotrephes sp.) family nepidae, water stick (Ranatra sp.) family nepidae; Coleopterans diving beetle (Cybister sp.) family dytiscidae-based on their proximate and elemental composition, antioxidant and antinutritional properties were assessed by using standard methods of analysis. Analytical studies revealed that the selected aquatic insect species have high nutritive value and are rich sources of protein (50.03 to 57.67%) and other nutrients (fat, carbohydrate and crude fiber, etc.) along with superior energy contents (331.98 to 506.38 kJ/100 g). The aquatic insect species also contained appreciable amounts of major and trace dietary elements. Phenol and flavonoid contents reflect its high antioxidant activity (80.82 to 91.47% DPPH inhibition). Tannin (18.50 to 60.76 mg tannic acid equivalent/100 g), phytic acid (11.72 to 97.30 mg/100 g) and oxalic acid (2.93 to 5.34 mg/100 g) as antinutritional compounds were registered below the toxic level (0.52% or 520 mg/100 g). The present findings indicate that the selected aquatic insect species can be considered as ideal candidates for exploration as food and feed to ensure nutritional and livelihood security of this region.

The evolutionary history of the relict scorpion family Iuridae of the eastern Mediterranean

Iuridae is a family of scorpions that exhibits a highly complex biogeographic and taxonomic history. Iuridae taxa are mainly found in Turkey and Greece, whereas a single species is found in northern Iraq. Several taxonomic revisions have been conducted on this family that initially comprised two genera. The latest taxonomic review, based on morphological and anatomical features, raised the number of Iuridae genera to four, and the number of species to 14.Sequence data from three molecular markers (COX1, 16S rDNA, ITS1) originating from numerous Iuridae taxa were analyzed within a phylogenetic framework. Divergence time-estimate analyses, species delimitation approaches and estimation of ancestral areas were implemented in order to: (1) reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of the Iuridae taxa, (2) evaluate the morphological classifications, and (3) obtain insights into the biogeographic history of the family in the East Mediterranean.The multi-locus phylogeny clearly confirms an ancient division into two clades, Calchinae and Iurinae. Ancient patterns of isolation and dispersal are revealed. Both subfamilies are largely confined to the Anatolian peninsula and its few coastal islands; only the most derived genus Iurus has dispersed westward to Crete and Peloponnese. Based on our findings, three new genera of Iurinae (Metaiurus, Anatoliurus, and Letoiurus) are established. The genus Neocalchas emerges as one of the most ancient scorpion clades, with divergence time about 27 mya.

New data on medically important scorpion species of Iran based on seven physiographic areas

There are 2612 and 80 scorpion species in the world and Iran, respectively. Iran is rich in climatic conditions and biodiversity. In this study, new data on scorpion fauna of different physiographic areas of Iran were obtained from various databases, including plains and deserts, eastern area of the Caspian Sea, western and central areas of the Caspian Sea, heights and foothills, the west coast of the Persian Gulf and the east coast of the Persian Gulf. Then, spatial distribution maps for scorpion species in different physiographic areas were prepared using ARC GIS software. There are three families (Buthidae, Hemiscorpiidae, and Scorpionidae), 19 genera, and 80 species and subspecies. In plains and deserts, there are three families, 15 genera, and 37 scorpion species; in the Caspian Sea area, there is only one family with four scorpions; in heights and foothills, there are three families, 14 genera, and 35 scorpion species; in the west coast of the Persian Gulf, there are three families, 13 genera, and 31 scorpion species, and finally, in the east coast of the Persian Gulf, there are three families, 14 genera, and 35 scorpion species. The Buthidae is the most prevalent family in Iran. Because of good climatological conditions on the east and west coast of the Persian Gulf, there are three families of scorpions, 18 genera, and 45 species. The majority of scorpion species inhabit this region, and the highest rate of scorpionism and death due to scorpion sting occurs in this part of Iran.

Molecular data do not support the traditional morphology-based groupings in the scorpion family Buthidae (Arachnida: Scorpiones)

The family Buthidae represents an early-diverging and most species-rich lineage of extant scorpions, but its internal phylogenetic relationships are still poorly understood. The family is traditionally divided into six morpho-groups; however, the monophyly of some of them remains unclear. We combined multilocus sequence data with extensive taxon sampling to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships among Buthidae and assess the validity of the morphology-based groupings. We recovered a monophyletic Buthus group as a sister clade to all the remaining Buthidae. We also found support for the monophyly of the Tityus group, but the remaining morpho-groups were recovered as para-/polyphyletic. Our results also suggest that some genera are in need of a taxonomic revision.

Hidden diversity, ancient divergences, and tentative Pleistocene microrefugia of European scorpions (Euscorpiidae: Euscorpiinae) in the eastern Adriatic region

The systematics and taxonomy of the scorpion family Euscorpiidae are still unresolved, and, within it, the eastern Adriatic scorpiofauna is largely unknown and under-researched. Based on two mitochondrial sequences (COI and 16S rRNA) and one nuclear marker sequence (ITS1), we put 107 newly analyzed samples originating from the Alps, the Eastern Adriatic, and the adjacent Dinaric karst area into phylogenetic context. Several species delineation approaches were applied to reveal cryptic diversity. Divergence time dating was used to highlight the major events in the evolutionary history of the genera Euscorpius and Alpiscorpius. The deep intraspecific genetic divergences observed in some clades warrant taxonomic revision of several taxa (Euscorpius tergestinus, Euscorpius hadzii, Euscorpius biokovensis, and Euscorpius (Alpiscorpius) croaticus). In this study, the population of E. hadzii from Lastovo Island (formerly Euscorpius carpaticus lagostae) is elevated to species level as Euscorpius lagostae Di Caporiacco, 1950, stat. nov. Euscorpius croaticus is moved to the genus Alpiscorpius as Alpiscorpius croaticus (Di Caporiacco, 1950) comb. nov. The distribution ranges of several species are revised, and based on the new data, a more detailed revision of species distribution is necessary. We attribute the major divergence events to the impact of the Middle Miocene Climate Transition, the Messinian Salinity Crisis, and the Middle Pleistocene Climate Transition. The observed patterns are therefore a direct consequence of the geological history and complex topography of the region, which provided numerous microhabitats, as well as of the Pleistocene microrefugia that enabled their persistence.

Systematics of the Relictual Asian Scorpion Family Pseudochactidae Gromov, 1998, with a Review of Cavernicolous, Troglobitic, and Troglomorphic Scorpions

The first integrative systematic revision of the relictual Asian scorpion family Pseudochactidae Gromov, 1998, making use of an unprecedented collection of material acquired during several expeditions to most of the type localities, is presented. The subfamilies, genera and species of Pseudochactidae are revised based on a phylogenetic analysis of 140 morphological characters and 8608 nucleotide base pairs of concatenated DNA sequence from two nuclear and three mitochondrial gene loci, and a multivariate statistical analysis of 22 ratios and 8 counts for 60 specimens. Three subfamilies, four genera and six species are recognized in the family. Troglokhammouaninae, subfam. nov., is created to restore the monophyly of the nominotypical subfamily Pseudochactinae Gromov, 1998. Aemngvantom, gen. nov., is created to accommodate Aemngvantom lao (Lourenço, 2012), comb. nov., and Aemngvantom thamnongpaseuam gen. et sp. nov. Four new synonyms are presented: Troglokhammouanus louisanneorum Lourenço, 2017 = Troglokhammouanus steineri Lourenço, 2007, syn. nov.; Vietbocap thienduongensis Lourenço and Pham, 2012 = Vietbocap canhi Lourenço and Pham, 2010, syn. nov.; Vietbocap aurantiacus Lourenço et al., 2018 = V. canhi, syn. nov.; Vietbocap quinquemilia Lourenço et al., 2018 = V. canhi, syn. nov. Revised diagnoses of the subfamilies, genera and species, with comparative images, a key and distribution maps are provided, along with a summary of available data on ecology and conservation status, where applicable. Among the Southeast Asian pseudochactids, all of which appear to be obligately cavernicolous, the three species of Vietbocapinae Lourenço, 2012, are highly troglomorphic whereas the sole species of Troglokhammouaninae is barely so. Applying recently revised definitions of the Schiner-Racovitza system for the classification of subterranean organisms, only Vietbocapinae can be considered troglobitic. The global diversity of cavernicolous, troglomorphic and troglobitic scorpions is similarly revisited and a key to ecological classification of cavernicolous and troglomorphic scorpions presented. The world totals of troglomorphic vs. troglobitic scorpions are currently 58 vs. 28 species, in 29 vs. 17 genera and 15 vs. 13 families, respectively.

Species Composition and Spatial Distribution of Scorpions Based on Eco-Environmental Variables in Provinces Along with the Oman Sea and the Persian Gulf in Iran: A GIS-Based Approach.

Scorpions are venomous arachnids with major medical health importance in Iran, specifically in the Southwest. In total, three families of scorpions, including Scorpionidae, Hemiscorpiidae, and Buthidae were reported in Iran. This study was conducted on scorpion ecology to determine the species composition and the dispersion of scorpions based on the ecological and environmental variables in combination with the Geographic Information System (GIS) in Khuzestan, Hormozgan, and Bushehr Provinces along with the Oman Sea and the Persian Gulf in Iran. Scorpions were collected from Hormozgan, Khuzestan, and Bushehr Provinces, Iran using the Ultra Violet light. The specimens were then identified according to their morphological characters utilizing reliable keys. To determine the relationship between the eco-environmental variables and the spatial distribution of species, the GPS points of the collected scorpions were recorded, and the scorpion shapefile was overlaid on digital elevation model, slope, land use, temperature, rainfall, soil texture, and bioclimatic maps. Totally, 25 specimens were reported in three families of Scorpionidae, Hemiscorpiidae, and Buthidae. Furthermore, Razianus zarudnyi, Androctonus crassicauda, Buthacus macrocentrus, Mesobuthus eupeus phillipsii, Odontobuthus bidentatus, and Hemiscorpius lepturus were the common species collected from Hormozgan, Khuzestan, and Bushehr Provinces, Iran. The results of the current study showed that a large number of species preferred the sand texture due to ecomorphological adaptation. Moreover, the poor rangeland vegetation cover was preferred by the majority of the scorpion species, including S. maurus townsendi. According to the results, the combination of the ecological factors related to the suitable habitat of different species of scorpion and GIS will provide the dispersal areas of each species. Furthermore, such databases can be comprehensive and valuable guides for health authorities to reduce and manage scorpion envenomation.

Autopsy Findings in Case of Fatal Scorpion Sting: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Scorpion sting is a public health issue in several countries, particularly in America, the Middle East, India and Africa. The estimated annual global incidence of scorpion envenomings is about 1.5 million, resulting in 2600 deaths. Scorpions are Arthropoda characterized by a tail ending in a terminal bulbous (telson) containing paired venom glands and the stinger. There are 19 known families of scorpions and more than 2200 species, of which about 50 from the families of Buthidae, Hemiscorpiidae and Scorpionidae are harmful to humans. Scorpion venom is a complex structure composed of neurotoxic proteins, salts, acidic proteins and organic compounds, thereby having neurologic, cardiovascular, hematologic and renal side effects, in addition to local effects such as redness, pain, burning and swelling. When the sting is fatal, the mechanism of death is often related to cardiotoxicity with terminal pulmonary edema. However, the cholinergic excess or the neuromuscular excitation can provoke respiratory failure. Sometimes, death is due to an anaphylactic reaction to the envenoming. The purpose of this literature review is to evaluate the autopsy findings in scorpion sting-related deaths in order to better understand the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying them, thus helping pathologists in defining the correct diagnosis.

Another one bites the dust: taxonomic sampling of a key genus in phylogenomic datasets reveals more non-monophyletic groups in traditional scorpion classification

Historically, morphological characters have been used to support the monophyly, composition, and phylogenetic relationships of scorpion families. Although recent phylogenomic analyses have recovered most of these traditional higher-level relationships as non-monophyletic, certain key taxa have yet to be sampled using a phylogenomic approach. Salient among these is the monotypic genus Caraboctonus Pocock,1893, the type species of the family Caraboctonidae Kraepelin, 1905. Here, we examined the putative monophyly and phylogenetic placement of this family, sampling the library of C. keyserlingi Pocock, 1893 using high throughput transcriptomic sequencing. Our phylogenomic analyses recovered Caraboctonidae as polyphyletic due to the distant placement of the genera Caraboctonus and Hadrurus Thorell, 1876. Caraboctonus was stably recovered as the sister-group of the monotypic family Superstitioniidae Stahnke, 1940, whereas Hadrurus formed an unstable relationship with Uroctonus Thorell, 1876and Belisarius Simon, 1879. Four-cluster likelihood mapping revealed that the instability inherent to the placement of Hadrurus, Uroctonus and Belisarius was attributable to significant gene tree conflict in the internodes corresponding to their divergences. To redress the polyphyly of Caraboctonidae, the following systematic actions have been taken: (1) the family Caraboctonidae has been delimited to consist of 23 species in the genera Caraboctonus and Hadruroides Pocock, 1893; (2) Caraboctonidae, previously included in the superfamily Iuroidea Thorell, 1876 or as incertae sedis, is transferred to the superfamily Caraboctonoidea (new rank); (3) the superfamily Hadruroidea (new rank) is established and the status of Hadrurinae Stahnke, 1973 is elevated to family (Hadruridae new status) including 9 species in the genera Hadrurus and Hoffmannihadrurus Fet & Soleglad, 2004 and (4) we treat Uroctonus and Belisarius as insertae sedis with respect to superfamilial placement. Our systematic actions engender the monophyly of both Iuroidea and Caraboctonidae. Future phylogenomic investigations should target similar taxon-poor and understudied lineages of potential phylogenetic significance, which are anticipated to reveal additional non-monophyletic groups.

Characterization, molecular modeling and phylogenetic analysis of a long mammalian neurotoxin from the venom of the Iranian scorpion Androctonus crassicauda

Scorpion venoms are highly complex polypeptides with a wide spectrum of bioactivities. A long chain peptide with eight cysteine residues and four disulfide bonds isolated from the venom of the Iranian scorpion Androctonus crassicauda, a dangerously venomous species belongs to the Buthidae family. Toxin was purified using size exclusion and reverse phase chromatography and was characterized by molecular weight determination and amino acid sequence. The primary structure analysis shows that AnCra1 is a long peptide with 64 amino acid residues and 7255.23 Da. as molecular weight. This toxic peptide, causing severe paralysis and leading to dead. It shows highest homology with voltage-gated sodium channel alpha toxins isolated from Middle-East and North-Africa scorpions. Phylogenetic relationship of AnCra1 and other ion channel toxins from Buthidae family suggested that, separation between these families of scorpions caused by the geographical conditions led to evolutionary alterations in these venoms polypeptide sequences. Homology modeling and three-dimensional structure of AnCra1 indicated that binding residues on exposed part of the peptide have high affinity for receptor residues in Na+V ion channel, site-3. The contact surfaces characteristics and charges may be eventuate to interaction between toxin peptide and targeted channel. Molecular homology between AnCra1 with structure of Na+V neurotoxic peptides illustrated that, AnCra1 can act as novel functional putative Alpha-mammal voltage-gated sodium channel toxin.

Phylogenomics facilitates stable scorpion systematics: Reassessing the relationships of Vaejovidae and a new higher-level classification of Scorpiones (Arachnida)

The Neartic family Vaejovidae (Scorpiones: Chactoidea) has long been treated as a diverse and systematically cohesive group of scorpions, but its monophyly and relationship to other scorpion families have historically been questioned. Morphological data have supported its monophyly and a variety of phylogenetic placements within the superfamily Chactoidea. Recent phylogenomic analyses have instead recovered vaejovids as polyphyletic (albeit with minimal taxonomic sampling) and Chactoidea as paraphyletic. Here, we reexamined the monophyly and phylogenetic placement of the family Vaejovidae, sampling 17 new vaejovid libraries using high throughput transcriptomic sequencing. Our phylogenomic analyses revealed a previous misplacement of Smeringurus mesaensis. Regardless, we recovered Vaejovidae as diphyletic due to the placement of the enigmatic genus Uroctonus. The remaining vaejovids formed a clade that was strongly supported as the sister group of the superfamily Scorpionoidea, a placement insensitive to matrix completeness or concatenation vs. species tree approaches to inferring the tree topology. Chactoidea was invariably recovered as a paraphyletic group due to the nested placement of Scorpionoidea. As first steps to resolving the paraphyly of Chactoidea, we take the following systematic actions: (1) we establish the superfamily Superstitionoidea (new superfamily) to accommodate Superstitioniidae; (2) we restore Vaejovoidea (status revalidated) as a valid superfamily that excludes Uroctonus; and (3) we treat the families Caraboctonidae, Troglotayosicidae, and the subfamily Uroctoninae as incertae sedis with respect to superfamilial placement. Our systematic actions thus establish the monophyly of the presently redefined Chactoidea and Vaejovoidea.

The identity ofCercophonius himalayensisLourenço, 1996, and the exclusion of the scorpion family Bothriuridae from the Indian fauna

We studied the male holotype of Cercophonius himalayensis Lourenço, 1996, the sole member of the scorpion family Bothriuridae from India, and concluded that it belongs to a species of the genus Phoniocercus Pocock, 1893, which is endemic to the temperate forests of Patagonia. The presence of a Patagonian genus in India is extremely unlikely; therefore, we consider this to be a case of mislabeling of the specimen, and consequently exclude the scorpion family Bothriuridae from Indian fauna. Cercophonius himalayensis is transferred to the genus Phoniocercus, and formally synonymized with Phoniocercus sanmartini Cekalovic, 1968. A brief illustrated description of the type specimen is made, emphasizing important diagnostic characters and some body parts not previously described, such as the hemispermatophore. We also present a probable explanation for the origin of the material.

Response of the eastern sand scorpion,Paruroctonus utahensis, to air movement from a moth analog

Arachnids have many setae that are used as sensory organs. Spiders have been shown to use trichobothria to sense air movements. Scorpions also have trichobothria, located solely on their pedipalps. In scorpions, these trichobothria have been used for taxonomic purposes, due to their systematic variations across taxa. In the lab, buthid scorpions respond to moth-like air vibrations by “hunting” a dummy prey, but scorpionids retreat. The eastern sand scorpion, Paruroctonus utahensis (Williams, 1968) is a member of the family Vaejovidae; by measuring its responses to air movements, we can begin to compare behavior of scorpion families. To determine the responses of P. utahensis to air stimulus, we created a piston-driven moth analog. To assess the trichobothria as candidate detectors of our air stimulus, we also monitored trichobothrial deflection in response to the moth analog. In behavioral trials, we ran this device for 10 seconds and recorded each scorpion's immediate responses as negative, neutral, or positive. For a control, we ran the device without its piston. Scorpions experienced both conditions. We found a significant difference between scorpions' responses under experimental and control conditions. On average, scorpions responded more negatively to experimental conditions as compared to control conditions. These data suggest that vaejovids, like scorpionids, retreat when they encounter a moth. We also found that our device was effective in stimulating appropriate trichobothrial deflection. Our moth analog could therefore be useful in further studies investigating the physiological mechanisms of prey detection.

A revised dated phylogeny of scorpions: Phylogenomic support for ancient divergence of the temperate Gondwanan family Bothriuridae

The scorpion family Bothriuridae occupies a subset of landmasses formerly constituting East and West temperate Gondwana, but its relationship to other scorpion families is in question. Whereas morphological data have strongly supported a sister group relationship of Bothriuridae and the superfamily Scorpionoidea, a recent phylogenomic analysis recovered a basal placement of bothriurids within Iurida, albeit sampling only a single exemplar. Here we reexamined the phylogenetic placement of the family Bothriuridae, sampling six bothriurid exemplars representing both East and West Gondwana, using transcriptomic data. Our results demonstrate that the sister group relationship of Bothriuridae to the clade (“Chactoidea” + Scorpionoidea) is supported by the inclusion of additional bothriurid taxa, and that this placement is insensitive to matrix completeness or partitioning by evolutionary rate. We also estimated divergence times within the order Scorpiones using multiple fossil calibrations, to infer whether the family Bothriuridae is sufficiently old to be characterized as a true Gondwanan lineage. We show that scorpions underwent ancient diversification between the Devonian and early Carboniferous. The age interval of the bothriurids sampled (a derived group that excludes exemplars from South Africa) spans the timing of breakup of temperate Gondwana.