Family Composition Research Articles

The Antimicrobial Potency of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Loaded with Melissa officinalis Extract.

Melissa officinalis is an important medicinal plant that is used and studied intensively due to its numerous pharmacological effects. This plant has numerous active compounds with biomedical potential; some are volatile, while others are sensitive to heat or oxygen. Therefore, to increase stability and prolong biological activities, the natural extract can be loaded into various nanostructured systems. In this study, different loading systems were obtained from mesoporous silica, like Mobile Composition of Matter family (MCM) with a hexagonal (MCM-41) or cubic (MCM-48) pore structure, simple or functionalized with amino groups (using 3-aminopropyl) such as triethoxysilane (APTES). Thus, the four materials were characterized from morphological and structural points of view by scanning electron microscopy, a BET analysis with adsorption-desorption isotherms, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and a thermogravimetric analysis coupled with differential scanning calorimetry. Natural extract from Melissa officinalis was concentrated and analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography to identify the polyphenolic compounds. The obtained materials were tested against Gram-negative bacteria and yeasts and against both reference strains and clinical strains belonging to Gram-positive bacteria that were previously isolated from intra-hospital infections. The highest antimicrobial efficiency was found against Gram-positive and fungal strains. Good activity was also recorded against methicillin-resistant S. aureus, the Melissa officinalis extract inhibiting the production of various virulence factors.

Factors Contributing to Health Deterioration in the Japanese Long-Term Care Insurance System in Terms of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living

This study aimed to determine which instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) are associated with health deterioration from the “support level” to the “care level” among users of the long-term care insurance system in Japan. From April 2017 to March 2020, we conducted a retrospective follow-up survey on 178 Japanese community-dwelling older adults (64 men, 114 women) newly certified as support level. Independent variable was 8 IADL items and the outcome defined as the “support level maintenance time.” Cox models were used to assess the risk of health deterioration, with adjustments for age group, family composition, dementia status, and frailty status by gender. Dependence on 5 items, “laundry” (hazard ratio [HR] =2.5; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-5.8), “cooking” (HR = 3.7; 95% CI: 1.1-12.2), “telephone use” (HR = 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2-4.7), “financial management” (HR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.2-5.0), and “medication management” (HR = 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2-4.8), was independently associated with a worse outcome among men, whereas dependence on “financial management” (HR = 2.6; 95% CI: 1.5-4.7) and “medication management” (HR = 2.0; 95% CI: 1.1-3.5) was independently associated with a worse outcome among women. These findings suggest that difficulties in “financial management” and “medication management” are common factors associated with health deterioration from the support to the care level among both genders. An association with household tasks was also seen among men, indicating that a paradigm shift is needed to increase the participation of men in household tasks.

Exploring gender differences in residential water demand

Residential water demand has been extensively studied, with the impact of various household characteristics on consumption well-documented. However, the specific effect of gender on household consumption remains insufficiently identified due to the predominant focus on mixed-gender households in previous research. In this paper, we aim to address this gap by examining gender differences in water consumption specifically within single-gender households. To accomplish this, we analyze data from 275 households equipped with individual meters in the city of Gijón, Spain, between 2017 and 2021. Our approach involves two main steps: first, the estimation of a Stone-Geary demand function for water consumption for both women and men single-gender households, and second, employ the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to examine gender differences based on the previous estimations. Our findings reveal that women's households consume significantly more water compared to men's households. Additionally, we observe that the demand for water is more inelastic among women, and their level of conditional use threshold is higher than that of men. Importantly, we find that these differences can be primarily attributed to distinct factors such as family composition, housing characteristics, and bill information between genders.

IJCM_107A: A study on healthcare seeking behaviour among the geriatric population residing in southeast Delhi: A community based cross sectional study

Background: Health-seeking behaviour is defined as ‘any activity undertaken by individuals who perceive themselves to have a health problem or to be ill for the purpose of finding an appropriate remedy. The severity of the disease among elderly is influenced by one important factor which is health seeking behaviour. To regain their lost health status the elderly must seek the treatment. The way people conceptualize the cause of their health problem and their perception of symptoms plays an important role in seeking healthcare. Health seeking behaviour is influenced by few factors like illiteracy, misconception, income, family composition, social isolation and dependency. Objective: To assess the healthcare seeking behaviour among the geriatric population residing in the field practise area of a Medical College in South East Delhi. Methodology: Community-based cross-sectional study conducted in South East Delhi. • The sample size was calculated as 350 considering a relative error of 3% at 95% level of significance and 10% non-response rate. Stratified random sampling with probability proportional to size was applied to the population registered at UHTC & RHTC area of a medical college in southeast Delhi. Households were selected by systematic random sampling. Persons aged > 60 years from the households were selected for the study. A self-designed, pre-tested, validated, structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. Results In our study it was found that the majority of the participants take treatment when they fall sick ie 99.5%. Of those who take treatment 54% go forconsultation whereas 48% take over the counter medication and 33% do home remedies. Out of the 54% who consult, 78.7% visit Private health facility and 21.3% visit Public health facility. Out of the 78.7% who visit private health facility 65.9% visit Non registered medical practitioner and 7.1% don’t even know whether their doctor is registered or not. Majority of the participants ie 86% preferred health facility within 1kms of their house & it was also a major reason for choosing a health facility for consultation. 98% of the participants visit only in case of illness. 52% were accompanied by their children or daughter in law and 26% visited alone. Conclusion: The participants favoured more private than public healthcare institutions. Nearby medical facilities were favoured, and non-registered medical professionals comprised the majority of them. Almost all senior people received therapy of some kind rather than dismissing it as an issue unique to ageing.

Exploring the nexus between poor governance and household food security

A cross-sectional-based study was conducted in Torghar Pakistan to analyze the association between impacts of poor governance and household food security through sociological lens. A sample size of 379 household heads was chosen randomly for data collection through structured questionnaire. The collected data was then analyzed in terms of bivariate and multivariate analyses, and binary logit model. At bivariate analysis, the study found that inadequate governance, political instability in terms of shortage of food supply chain, smuggling of food commodities had open new vistas toward starvation and household food insecurity. At multivariate analysis, the family composition has vivid association between household food security and poor governance. Although religious education and lower level of education deteriorate the existing food security at household level were also explored. Lastly, at binary logistic regression model depicted that increased in poor governance influence household food security negatively. Thus, the government should collaborate with local political leaders to identify those lacunas and institutional weakness that affect the good governance patterns in terms of smuggling and nepotism which deteriorate the existing channel of food supply chain during militancy were put forwarded some of the recommendations in light of the present study.

Socioeconomic Attainments of Second-Generation South Asian Americans: Evidence from the American Community Survey, 2014–2018

Using data from the American Community Survey for 2014–2018, we provide empirical evidence about the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of South Asian Americans. Our study investigates not only Indians, but also provides the first multivariate analyses for Bangladeshi, Nepalese, Pakistani, and Sri Lankans. The focus is on second-generation South Asians, but some descriptive statistics are shown for first-generation immigrants. In comparison to Whites, the educational distributions of first-generation immigrants are bimodal to varying degrees across the South Asian groups. However, with the exception of the Nepalese, all of the native-born South Asian groups obtain higher levels of education than Whites. Poverty among South Asian groups tends to reflect their educational levels so that poverty rates decline between the first-generation and the native-born, but second-generation Bangladeshi and Pakistani have somewhat higher than expected poverty due to family size and composition. Second-generation Indians, Pakistanis and Sri Lankans are more likely to be affluent than Whites, and these differences are partly but not fully explained by educational and other demographic characteristics. Other findings provide no support for the popular claim that the wages of second-generation South Asian groups are disadvantaged in comparison to Whites.

334 Resident Salary Compared to Living Wages at US Training Institutions

INTRODUCTION: Resident physician salaries vary by region, though it is unknown how these variations compare to differences in living wages across the United States or what factors drive residency salary discrepancies. METHODS: Publicly available resident salary information was obtained from full-service training centers containing a neurosurgical residency program via institution-specific websites in February 2023 with information on post-graduate year (PGY)-1 through PGY-7 resident compensation for 2022-2023. Living wage calculations by city were generated via the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Living-Wage Calculator. Resident salary to living-wage ratios were calculated using PGY-4 salary for each family composition living-wage. Univariate and multivariable analysis of PGY-4 resident salary on affordability was performed, accounting for proportion of expected living wages to taxes, transportation, housing, medical costs, childcare, and food as well as unionization and state income-tax status. RESULTS: 118 neurosurgery residency programs were included, 21 (17.9%) of which were unionized. Residents without children earned a salary greater than living-wage during all years, while single-parent families were unable to earn a living-wage until PGY-7. Residents with 1 child in in 2-adult (single-income) and 2-adult (double-income) families were unable to earn a living-wage until PGY-5 and PGY-3 respectively. Residents with more than 1 child failed to earn a living-wage. Multivariate regression analysis using PGY-4 salary:living-wage ratios in single-child, 2-parent homes showed food expenses and unionization status were always significant. On multivariate regression, unionization was significantly associated with lower living-wage ratios pre-stipend, improved post-stipend, and was again significantly lower after factoring in union dues. CONCLUSIONS: Current resident salaries often preclude a resident from earning a living-wage, especially among junior residents and those with children. Unionization is significantly associated with lower resident income to living-wage ratios.

Seeds of Change: Assessing Wheat Knowledge and Socio-profile in Rural Areas of Kharar, Tehsil of Punjab, India

This study investigates the socio-profile status, agricultural practices, and knowledge acquisition among farmers in rural villages of the Punjab region, India. Employing a cross-sectional survey design, data was collected from farmers residing in five villages through structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The demographic analysis revealed a balanced gender distribution, with a significant proportion falling within the 40-60 years age bracket, highlighting the maturity of the farming population. Educational attainment varied, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to enhance access to higher education and vocational training programs. Findings indicated a high prevalence of smartphone usage among farmers, presenting opportunities for leveraging digital technology in agricultural extension services. Family compositions leaned towards nuclear families, while landholding patterns showcased the varied socio-profile landscape within the farming community. Peer networks and institutional support emerged as significant sources of agricultural information, underscoring the importance of collaborative approaches in knowledge dissemination. A notable increase in knowledge was observed among farmers after video presentations on wheat varieties, highlighting the efficacy of multimedia approaches in agricultural education. The study aimed to assess the impact of a video presentation on wheat cultivation on farmers' knowledge. Data from 60 farmers showed significant improvements in various aspects of wheat cultivation knowledge, including identifying suitable wheat varieties, understanding sowing and harvesting timing, and recognizing common wheat diseases. The mean percentage increase in knowledge was 103%, indicating the effectiveness of the educational program. These findings underscore the importance of targeted educational initiatives in promoting sustainable agriculture and improving farmers' livelihoods. Continued support and education efforts are essential for sustaining and enhancing these positive outcomes. However, the preference for sowing previous year's seeds over newly released varieties indicates the persistence of traditional practices and the need for targeted interventions to promote varietal adoption. Overall, this study provides valuable insights for policymakers and development practitioners to design context-specific interventions aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity, promoting sustainable livelihoods, and ensuring food security for rural populations in the Punjab region and beyond.

Assessing Factors That Contribute to Low Incomes (As Evident in the Leningrad Region)

The article analyzes factors that increase the risk that a household will fall into poverty. The analysis is based on a representative survey of households in the Leningrad Region of Russia. The survey was carried out in during August and September 2022. The method for collecting sociological information was a standardized interview conducted in person at the respondents’ place of residence. The core sample size was 1,200 households, and an additional sample of 400 low-income households was also canvassed. Regression results indicate higher than average risk of poverty for families with children, especially for families with several children and/or families with children of pre-school age; families in which no one is employed; and families that reside in rural localities. Families with a student in a secondary school for vocational education and single-parent families with children in the household have a significantly higher probability of being classified as low-income. The article maintains that poverty prevention measures would be better targeted if the household poverty threshold were adjusted in response to family composition, including the number of children and their age. Means testing should also take into account not only the mere possession of different types of assets but also their estimated market value. That change would make means testing a more reliable criterion of a family’s need for social support

Family Composition, Race, and Teachers’ Perceptions of Parent-Teacher Alliance

Abstract Both family composition and teachers’ perceptions of parents are important for student success. However, we know little about whether teachers’ perceptions of parents vary by family composition. Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, I show that teachers perceive single mothers with multipartner fertility and, to a lesser extent, repartnered mothers with multipartner fertility as less aligned with their school’s goals than parents who have nuclear families. Socioeconomic status, children’s behavior, and parents’ involvement do not explain this association. I also show that white teachers’ perceptions—of both white and black parents—drive this relationship. Further, I show that white teachers perceive black parents as less aligned with their school’s goals than white parents with the same family type. By focusing on mesolevel interactions between the family and school settings, this study expands research on the implications of family composition for students’ and parents’ experiences at school.

Distribution of Macrozoobenthos of Flowing Water Bodies by Altitudinal Belts of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic

Spatial distribution, species structure and ecological indicators of macrozoobenthos of flowing water bodies by altitude belts of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic were studied. Macrobenthos fauna of the rivers of the region is formed in psammoreophilic, phytoreophilic and peloreophilic biocenoses with a great advantage of lithoreophilic biocenosis. The lithoreophilic biocenosis of rivers of the mountain and high-mountain belts is characterized by extensive area and abundance of species diversity. The core of the lithoreophilic biocenosis is composed of populations of rheophilic organisms such as moths, mayflies, vernal pools and simulids; its usual inhabitants are also rheophilic larvae of chironomids of the genus Polypedilum, Endochironomus, Eukiefferiella, Cricotopus and Orthocladius. The family composition of the fauna was found to be relatively stable along the rivers. Differences in the species composition of macrobenthos fauna, change of dominant species in biocenoses are related to biological features of the main species, anthropic and anthropogenic impacts, as well as different time of research. The species composition of macrozoobenthos of the rivers of the autonomous republic decreases from the source to the mouth.

Parental engagement in research on paediatric lower respiratory tract infections in Indonesia

BackgroundLower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) in children are a major concern in Indonesia as it is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Therefore, research on LRTIs is crucial to improve children’s health. However, clinical research in children is challenging due to parental concerns. This study aims to understand parental considerations for taking part in clinical studies on LRTI in the Indonesian context.MethodsA cross-sectional study using a validated online questionnaire was conducted from November 2021 to March 2022. This study included parents from two public elementary schools and two private primary schools in Semarang, Indonesia. A total of 1236 responses were analysed.ResultsThere was a significant association between educational attainment and willingness to participate in general health and LRTI-related research requiring specimen collection; respondents with an advanced educational level were more likely to refuse participation in research. A similar pattern was observed among respondents with smaller families and younger children against participation in LRTI research. Most respondents who indicated not to participate explained that they did not perceive the necessity to take part and expressed their concerns about endangering their child’s health as a consequence of the specimen collection. Most respondents expected a personal benefit and prioritized access to the study results for their child.ConclusionParents’ educational background and family composition are important determinants of parental engagement in research on LRTI in Indonesia. Notably, parents with a lower educational level, having large families, and older children were more inclined to participate. The emphasis on concerns about potential harm and personal benefit underscores the need for a targeted communication strategy.

Using an Equity-Centered Framework to Guide Family Engagement: Supporting Children’s Lifewide Music-Making through Reciprocal Partnerships

Engaging families in partnerships that promote student learning and build trust between music educators and the community can be challenging. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide suggestions to help music teachers engage families to support children’s lifewide music-making. We share research and scholarship on family musical practices, family composition in the United States, family-inclusive practices, as well as some families’ views of and hopes for music education. We use this literature and an equity-centered framework of family engagement to provide suggestions to build reciprocally beneficial family partnerships, as well as sample materials teachers can use.

Causal Mediation of Neighborhood-Level Pediatric Hospitalization Inequities.

Population-wide racial inequities in child health outcomes are well documented. Less is known about causal pathways linking inequities and social, economic, and environmental exposures. Here, we sought to estimate the total inequities in population-level hospitalization rates and determine how much is mediated by place-based exposures and community characteristics. We employed a population-wide, neighborhood-level study that included youth <18 years hospitalized between July 1, 2016 and June 30, 2022. We defined a causal directed acyclic graph a priori to estimate the mediating pathways by which marginalized population composition causes census tract-level hospitalization rates. We used negative binomial regression models to estimate hospitalization rate inequities and how much of these inequities were mediated indirectly through place-based social, economic, and environmental exposures. We analyzed 50 719 hospitalizations experienced by 28 390 patients. We calculated census tract-level hospitalization rates per 1000 children, which ranged from 10.9 to 143.0 (median 45.1; interquartile range 34.5 to 60.1) across included tracts. For every 10% increase in the marginalized population, the tract-level hospitalization rate increased by 6.2% (95% confidence interval: 4.5 to 8.0). After adjustment for tract-level community material deprivation, crime risk, English usage, housing tenure, family composition, hospital access, greenspace, traffic-related air pollution, and housing conditions, no inequity remained (0.2%, 95% confidence interval: -2.2 to 2.7). Results differed when considering subsets of asthma, type 1 diabetes, sickle cell anemia, and psychiatric disorders. Our findings provide additional evidence supporting structural racism as a significant root cause of inequities in child health outcomes, including outcomes at the population level.

The consumption expenditure response to unemployment: Evidence from Norwegian households

This paper examines heterogeneity in household income and consumption responses to unemployment, using granular administrative tax data from Norway. On average, unemployment results in a significant, lasting income reduction, accompanied by a decrease in consumption expenditures of between one-third to one-half of the income loss. We find that households with greater liquid assets at the outset experience less of a decline in consumption, whereas those with higher levels of debt encounter a more substantial decrease. Notably, also the interaction of liquid assets and debt holdings matters for the consumption response. While households with larger initial liquid asset holdings on average respond less, the analyses show that this is not the case among households that simultaneously hold substantial amounts of debt, thus adding to a more nuanced view of the importance of household heterogeneity for economic outcomes. Furthermore, our investigation into heterogeneity across family composition and child age uncovers distinct patterns in consumption responses, highlighting the varied impacts of unemployment. Lastly, we find that spending patterns, as indicated by the marginal propensity to consume (MPC), become more pronounced during recessions.

Dynamics of 2023 FW14, the second L4 Mars trojan, and a physical characterization using the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias

Context. Known Mars trojans could be primordial small bodies that have remained in their present-day orbits for the age of the Solar System. Their orbital distribution is strongly asymmetric; there are over a dozen objects at the L5 point and just one at L4, (121514) 1999 UJ7. Most L5 trojans appear to form a collision-induced asteroid cluster, known as the Eureka family. Asteroid 2023 FW14 was recently discovered and it has a robust orbit determination that may be consistent with a Mars trojan status. Aims. Our aim is determine the nature and dynamical properties of 2023 FW14. Methods. We carried out an observational study of 2023 FW14 to derive its spectral class using the OSIRIS camera spectrograph at the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias. We investigated its possible trojan resonance with Mars using direct N-body simulations. Results. The reflectance spectrum of 2023 FW14 is not compatible with the olivine-rich composition of the Eureka family; it also does not resemble the composition of the Moon, although (101429) 1998 VF31 does. The Eureka family and 101429 are at the L5 point. The spectrum of 2023 FW14 is also different from two out of the three spectra in the literature of the other known L4 trojan, 121514, which are of C-type. The visible spectrum of 2023 FW14 is consistent with that of an X-type asteroid, as is the third spectrum of 121514. Our calculations confirm that 2023 FW14 is the second known L4 Mars trojan although it is unlikely to be primordial; it may remain in its present-day “tadpole” path for several million years before transferring to a Mars-crossing orbit. It might be a fragment of 121514, but a capture scenario seems more likely. Conclusions. The discovery of 2023 FW14 suggests that regular Mars-crossing asteroids can be captured as temporary Mars trojans.

SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE APPLIED TO THE DESIGN OF THE HOUSING CORE

This article presents the results of research focused on the design of core housing as a product, process, and continuous transformation system, achieved through a unified space, as a recurring solution since the origins of humankind and an alternative for small spaces. The proposal for affordable housing in Cuenca for low-income populations is based on an approach that involves not only the housing solution but also the relationship with people's ways of living, bioclimatic criteria, and the study of a sustainable construction system. Qualitative research methodologies and transdisciplinary workshops were used to create spaces for discussion and verification with the participation of various stakeholders. Therefore, the research work integrated people's ways of living, the use of local materials, and indoor comfort conditions. After tabulating the gathered data, the design of the core housing was carried out, enabling the design to accommodate the ways people live, rather than the other way around. Ultimately, enabling appropriation according to specific needs of diverse family compositions, in addition to a sustainable construction system as an ecological and economical solution.

The Mothers’ Role in the Children’s Choice of a Career in Entrepreneurship: An Examination of Mothers in Sri Lanka

Making the choice of individuals to choose a career in self-employment is critical as an entrepreneur contributing to a county’s economy. Entrepreneurship as a choice is influenced by many contemporaneous variables such as household wealth, gender, spouse's education, family composition, along with health. This paper examined the mothers’ influence on the choice of individuals to engage in entrepreneurship. Even though many studies have been conducted in understanding the various factors that prevent an individual from becoming an entrepreneur limited studies have been conducted in understanding the mother’s contribution to creating or crushing entrepreneurial mind set of a child especially in the Sri Lankan context. Having understood that a qualitative research study supported by twenty in-depth interviews were conducted among mothers and children to explore their influence on the child’s choice of becoming an entrepreneur. The findings imply that there is a significant impact of a mother on the probability of an individual to become an entrepreneur. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Education, Entrepreneurial Intention, Entrepreneurial Orientation, Mothers’ Influence.

Integrative Analysis of the DUF668 Gene Family in Nicotiana tabacum to Excavate Their Potential Roles in Abiotic Stress Responses

The domain of the unknown function (DUF) gene families assumes pivotal roles in plant metabolic and stress responses. However, our comprehension of the tobacco DUF668 (NtDUF668) gene family and its specific reactions to heavy metal, drought, and salt stresses remain circumscribed. In the current investigation, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the NtDUF668 gene family was undertaken utilizing bioinformatics tools. The results unveiled a total of 20 members in the NtDUF668 gene family, denominated NtDUF668-01 to NtDUF668-20. Phylogenetic analyses indicated a closer genetic relationship of DUF668 genes between Nicotiana tabacum and Ipomoea batatas. The examination of gene structure and conservative motifs revealed a bifurcation into two major Clades, aligning with previous studies on DUF668 gene families from various plant species, emphasizing its highly conserved evolutionary mechanism across plants. The exploration of promoter regions of NtDUF668 genes revealed a plethora of cis-acting elements associated with abiotic and biotic stresses, light signaling, and phytohormones. Gene duplication events and selection pressure analysis disclosed the segmental duplication and strong purifying selection pressure during the evolution of NtDUF668 genes. Syntenic analysis indicated a relatively conserved evolutionary mechanism of DUF668 gene families within dicotyledons. Tissue-specific expression analysis suggested that NtDUF668 family members are potentially involved in root development, floral organ formation, and abscission. The expression patterns and qRT–PCR analysis of NtDUF668 genes implied the potentially functional involvements of NtDUF668s in response to multiple abiotic stresses. Furthermore, the stress-triggered member NtDUF668-08 exhibited specific nuclear localization. In conclusion, this genome-wide analysis illuminates the composition, phylogenetic relationships, and potential roles of the NtDUF668 gene family in abiotic stress responses. The identified candidate genes, particularly NtDUF668-08, warrant further research for functional investigation.

Local Genomic Instability of the SpTransformer Gene Family in the Purple Sea Urchin Inferred from BAC Insert Deletions.

The SpTransformer (SpTrf) gene family in the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, encodes immune response proteins. The genes are clustered, surrounded by short tandem repeats, and some are present in genomic segmental duplications. The genes share regions of sequence and include repeats in the coding exon. This complex structure is consistent with putative local genomic instability. Instability of the SpTrf gene cluster was tested by 10 days of growth of Escherichia coli harboring bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones of sea urchin genomic DNA with inserts containing SpTrf genes. After the growth period, the BAC DNA inserts were analyzed for size and SpTrf gene content. Clones with multiple SpTrf genes showed a variety of deletions, including loss of one, most, or all genes from the cluster. Alternatively, a BAC insert with a single SpTrf gene was stable. BAC insert instability is consistent with variations in the gene family composition among sea urchins, the types of SpTrf genes in the family, and a reduction in the gene copy number in single coelomocytes. Based on the sequence variability among SpTrf genes within and among sea urchins, local genomic instability of the family may be important for driving sequence diversity in this gene family that would be of benefit to sea urchins in their arms race with marine microbes.