False Memory Rates Research Articles

Proneness to false memory generation predicts pseudoscientific belief endorsement

Among cognitive factors that can influence the endorsement of pseudoscientific beliefs, our study focuses on proneness to false memory generation. In this preregistered study, we presented 170 fluent English speakers residing in the USA with a misinformation task aimed at generating false memories. In this task, they first completed an event encoding stage, in which two events were narrated through sequentially presented pictures. One day later, they read a series of sentences relating the same events but which included several inaccurate descriptions aimed at producing a misinformation effect. Finally, we measured the influence of the misinformation manipulation over false memory generation. After completing the misinformation task, participants responded to a questionnaire measuring pseudoscientific beliefs. Our results showed a positive correlation between pseudoscience endorsement and false memory rates, which indicates that the latter might be a key factor influencing susceptibility to pseudoscience. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing a link between the tendency to believe in pseudoscience and variability regarding proneness to develop false memories. Practical implications for the design of new interventions to effectively reduce pseudoscientific beliefs and their negative impact on our society are discussed.

True and false memories for spatial location evoke more similar patterns of brain activity in males than females

ABSTRACT True and false memories recruit a number of shared brain regions; however, they are not completely overlapping. Extensive sex differences have been identified in the brain during true memories and, recently, we identified sex differences in the brain during false memories. In the current fMRI study, we sought to determine whether sex differences existed in the location and extent of overlap between true and false memories. True and false memories activated a number of shared brain regions. Compared to females, males produced a greater number of overlapping brain regions (8 versus 2 activations for males and females, respectively) including the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and early/late visual processing cortices (including V1) in males and prefrontal and parietal cortices in females. Males had significantly higher similarity between true and false memory activation maps, revealed by our novel multi-voxel pattern correlation analysis. Moreover, higher similarity between true and false memory activation maps was associated with higher false memory rates. The current results suggest that true and false memories are more similar in males than females. The significant brain–behavior relationship also suggests that males may be more susceptible to false memory errors due to their highly similar true memory–false memory cortical representations.

False memories through auditory distraction: When irrelevant speech produces memory intrusions in the absence of semantic interference.

Task-irrelevant speech is known to cause disruption of short-term memory, either through specific interference with encoding processes (e.g., seriation, semantic processing) or by diverting attention from the focal task. Previous studies found that semantically related background speech can induce memory intrusions of words that were not part of the to-be-remembered list. While these findings suggest false memories due to semantic interference, the present study aims to test whether the presence of task-irrelevant speech affects the susceptibility to memory intrusions also in the absence of semantic interference. Therefore, incomprehensible to-be-ignored speech was presented during encoding of semantically related words. It was found across three experiments that incomprehensible changing-state speech increased the rate of false memories of non-presented but semantically related words in a subsequent recognition (Experiments 1 and 2) or recall test (Experiment 3), compared with white noise or steady-state speech. The findings indicate that speech interfered with serial-order processing of the to-be-remembered items, thus urging participants to rely on semantic information to encode and retrieve the presented words. While a focus on semantic information enabled participants to correctly recollect the majority of presented words, it most likely also increased the proportion of false memories of words with semantic associations to the presented words both in recall and recognition tests. In all three experiments, the presence of an auditory deviant in background speech did not increase the rate of false memories, suggesting that attentional capture alone does not necessarily induce source monitoring errors. However, Experiment 3 revealed that an increase in visual task-encoding load attenuated the changing-state effect on the production of false memories. This indicates that the semantic organisation processes initiated as a result of the loss of order information in case of changing-state speech may be sensitive to attentional control.

Us versus them: The role of national identity in the formation of false memories for fake news.

People are prone to forming false memories for fictitious events described in fake news stories. In this preregistered study, we hypothesized that the formation of false memories may be promoted when the fake news includes stereotypes that reflect positively on one's own nationality or negatively on another nationality. We exposed German and Irish participants (N = 1,184) to fabricated news stories that were consistent with positive or negative stereotypes about Germany and Ireland. The predicted three-way interaction was not observed. Exploratory follow-up analyses revealed the expected pattern of results for German participants but not for Irish participants, who were more likely to remember positive stories and stories about Ireland. Individual differences in patriotism did not significantly affect false memory rates; however, higher levels of cognitive ability and analytical reasoning decreased false memories and increased participants' ability to distinguish between true and false news stories. These results demonstrate that stereotypical information pertaining to national identity can influence the formation of false memories for fake news, but variations in cultural context may affect how misinformation is received and processed. We conclude by urging researchers to consider the sociopolitical and media landscape when predicting the consequences of fake news exposure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Unringing the bell: Successful debriefing following a rich false memory study

In rich false memory studies, familial informants often provide information to support researchers in planting vivid memories of events that never occurred. The goal of the current study was to assess how effectively we can retract these false memories via debriefing – i.e., to what extent can we put participants back the way we found them? We aimed to establish (1) what proportion of participants would retain a false memory or false belief following debriefing, and (2) whether richer, more detailed memories would be more difficult to retract. Participants (N = 123) completed a false memory implantation protocol as part of a replication of the “Lost in the Mall” study (Loftus & Pickrell, Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720-725, 1995). By the end of the protocol, 14% of participants self-reported a memory for the fabricated event, and a further 52% believed it had happened. Participants were then fully debriefed, and memory and belief for the false event were assessed again. In a follow-up assessment 3 days post-debriefing, the false memory rate had dropped to 6% and false belief rates also fell precipitously to 7%. Moreover, virtually all persistent false memories were found to be nonbelieved memories, where participants no longer accepted that the fabricated event had occurred. Richer, more detailed memories were more resistant to correction, but were still mostly retracted. This study provides evidence that participants can be “dehoaxed”, and even very convincing false memories can be retracted.

Fake memories: A meta-analysis on the effect of fake news on the creation of false memories and false beliefs

Abstract Fake news can affect people in negative ways. A recent line of research has demonstrated that when people are exposed to fake news they can form false memories for the events depicted in the news stories. We conducted a meta-analysis to obtain an estimate of the average rate of false memories elicited by fake news. Thirteen articles were included in the final analysis, revealing that nearly 40% and 60% of the participants reported at least one false memory and belief (respectively) after fake news exposure, while each participant remembered or believed 22% of the total number of fake news presented. Individual differences may affect the rate of false memory formation following exposure to false memories. We therefore examined moderating effects of individual difference variables assessed in the included studies. Participants with better analytical reasoning skills and a high level of interest in the news topic were least likely to report false memories for fake news, with level of interest being also a facilitating factor in remembering true news. No effect was detected for cognitive ability and objective knowledge. Our results provide insightful and practical information in the context of world-wide misinformation dissemination and its impact on people's beliefs and memories.

False Memory and Borderline Personality Features

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a mental disorder characterized by significant impairment in intrapersonal and interpersonal functioning, as well as patterns of personality pathology. Memory deficits are not recognized as a core symptom of BPD, but individuals with BPD symptoms have long been suspected to have inaccurate perceptions, disturbed memory processes, and an increased tendency to develop false memories. In the present study, we examined whether there was an association between BPD features and the production of false memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm—a laboratory-based procedure that is frequently used to investigate false memory. We also compared the traditional categorical BPD criteria (DSM-5 Section II) with the alternative model of personality disorders BPD criteria (DSM-5 Section III) in predicting memory performance. A total of 298 university students completed the McLean Screening Instrument for Borderline Personality Disorder, SCID-II Personality Questionnaire, Borderline Personality Disorder Impairment Scale, Personality Inventory for DSM-5, Beck Depression Inventory, Dissociative Experiences Scale, and Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Participants were also tested using both traditional DRM word lists as well as word lists that were specifically associated with BPD features. Using the traditional diagnosis of BPD, BPD features were correlated with higher false memory for positive information; in the alternative model of BPD, identity impairment and anxiousness were correlated with the overall false memory score. We also found that trauma and dissociation mediated the relation between BPD and false memory. These findings are discussed in terms of how the consequences of trauma, such as dissociation and identity disturbance, are associated with false memory. Whether false memory rates are higher in a clinical population of BPD patients than in non-clinical volunteers remains to be determined.

Do gender stereotypes give rise to false memories?

False memory is normally examined by the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm and it has shown an indirect association with gender stereotypes. In this study, gender effect on false memory formation along with the influence of emotional words stimuli were examined. 60 subjects (30 female) were recruited and they were exposed to 4 lists of 12 words in a DRM paradigm. Effects of gender stereotypes were examined using 2 lists of gender-categorized words. In addition, the emotional effect of the stimuli was also investigated by 2 lists of negatively-balanced or neutral lures (eg. blood or chair). Subsequently, false memory rates in the male and female participants were statistically compared using a mixed ANOVA model. The results showed a significant differential effect of gender on false memory formation as well as negative and neutral word stimuli.

The impact of fabrication on recognition memory: An experimental study

We examined whether fabrication affects memory using a new paradigm combining the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM) and the Amsterdam Short Term Memory task (ASTM). Participants were assigned to either a forced fabrication or honest condition, and encoded emotionally-negative and neutral wordlists by reading words out loud. The wordlists contained words that were associatively related to each other (e.g., symphony, sound, piano, radio, sing, orchestra), and converged to a non-presented critical word (e.g., music). Next, all participants had to indicate two words that were previously read out loud. However, participants in the forced fabrication condition had to fabricate that they read two additional words out loud, which were associated to the same DRM list. Participants in the forced fabrication condition formed false memories for their self-generated fabrications. Although fabrication did not increase spontaneous false memory rates for non-presented critical words, our results did highlight the perils of forcing people to fabricate.

Simulating denial increases false memory rates for abuse unrelated information.

Victims of abuse might deny their traumatic experiences. We studied mnemonic effects of simulating false denial of a child sexual abuse narrative. Participants (N = 127) read and empathized with the main character of this narrative. Next, half were instructed to falsely deny abuse‐related information while others responded honestly in an interview. One week later, participants received misinformation for the narrative and interview. In a final source memory task, participants' memory for the narrative and interview was tested. Participants who falsely denied abuse‐related information endorsed more abuse‐unrelated misinformation about the event than honest participants. Abuse‐related false memory rates did not statistically differ between the groups, and false denials were not related to omission errors about (1) the interview and (2) narrative. Hence, victim's memory for abuse‐related information related to their experience might not be affected by a false denial, and inconsistencies surrounding the abuse‐unrelated information are more likely to take place.

Age-related differences in encoding-retrieval similarity and their relationship to false memory

Typical aging is associated with increases in false memory rates among older adults. Such errors are frequently associated with differential neural activity during encoding and retrieval in older compared to younger adults within visual cortices and the hippocampus. It remains unknown how pattern similarity reductions relate to false memories in healthy aging. Using encoding-retrieval similarity (ERS) analyses in a sample of younger and older adults, we examined how the similarity of neural patterns between memory phases associated with target and lure objects was impacted by age and contributed to false memory rates. Single-item ERS for targets and lures was reduced by age throughout much of the ventral visual stream and the posterior hippocampus. Furthermore, ERS associated with perceptual lures within the visual stream maintained differential relationships with false memory. Finally, a global ERS metric accounted for age deficits in single-item ERS, but did not contribute to false memory rates. These findings highlight the contribution of age-related reductions in ERS across multiple representational levels to false memories in healthy aging.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Over the Right Anterior Temporal Lobe Does Not Modulate False Recognition.

Non-invasive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the left anterior temporal lobe (ATL) has been shown to cause a reduction in the rate of false memories with semantically related words. Such a reduction seems to be specific to false memories induced by the study of associative lists, but is not observed when the studied lists are categorical in nature. These findings are interpreted as evidence that the left ATL functions as an integration hub that is crucial for the binding of semantic information into coherent representations of concepts. In order to investigate whether the right ATL might also contribute to semantic integration in the processing of verbal associative material, a follow-up tDCS study was conducted with the stimulation at study lateralized on the right ATL. A sample of 75 undergraduate students participated in an experiment in which they studied 8 associative lists and 8 categorical lists. One third of the participants studied all their word lists under anodal stimulation, another third studied under cathodal stimulation and the other third under sham stimulation. Results showed that stimulation of the right ATL by tDCS does not modulate false recognition for either association-related critical words or category-related critical words. These results provide preliminary support to views positing asymmetric connectivity between the anterior temporal lobes and the semantic representational network, and provide evidence for understanding bilateral brain dynamics and the nature of semantically induced memory distortions.

The influence of positive emotion and negative emotion on false memory based on EEG signal analysis

Analyzing the influence of emotion on false memory through electroencephalogram is helpful to further explore the cognition function of brain. In this study, material emotion and participant emotion were introduced into Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm experiment at the same time, which made the experiment process closer to real life. Different music was used to induce the emotion of 28 participants, and they were divided into positive group and negative group. Then, we analyzed the difference between the two groups from the behavior data, source location and cortex functional network of event related potential. The results of difference analysis show that the false memory rate of positive group (85 ± 8.6%) is significantly higher than that of negative group (72 ± 9.7%), and the activation degree and voxel number of the positive group are significantly higher than those of the negative group in the brain regions related to semantic coding (BA24 and BA45), and the compactness, the speed of information transmission and the small-world property of the brain network in positive group are significantly higher than those in negative group. The above results show that in the positive group, more brain resources are used for semantic association when they judge keywords, which confuse the keywords and learning words, and result in more false memories.

Generalization and False Memory in an Acquired Equivalence Paradigm: The Influence of Physical Resemblance Across Related Episodes.

The ability to make inferences about related experiences is an important function of memory that allows individuals to build generalizable knowledge. In some cases, however, making inferences may lead to false memories when individuals misremember inferred information as having been observed. One factor that is known to increase the prevalence of false memories is the physical resemblance between new and old information. The extent to which physical resemblance has parallel effects on generalization and memory for the source of inferred associations is not known. To investigate the parallels between memory generalization and false memories, we conducted three experiments using an acquired equivalence paradigm and manipulated physical resemblance between items that made up related experiences. The three experiments showed increased generalization for higher levels of resemblance. Recognition and source memory judgments revealed that high rates of generalization were not always accompanied by high rates of false memories. Thus, physical resemblance across episodes may promote generalization with or without a trade-off in terms of impeding memory specificity.

Misremembering Brexit: partisan bias and individual predictors of false memories for fake news stories among Brexit voters

ABSTRACT Exposure to fake news stories can result in false memories for the events portrayed, and this effect can be enhanced if the stories conform to the reader's ideological position. We exposed 1299 UK residents to fabricated news stories about Brexit. 44% of participants reported a false memory for at least one fabricated story, with a higher rate of false memories for stories that reflected poorly on the opposing side. This effect of ideological congruency was somewhat greater among participants who were exposed to a threat to their social identity as a Leave or Remain supporter; however, this moderating effect was only statistically significant in exploratory analyses using a more conservative definition of false memory. Participants with higher cognitive ability and analytical reasoning scores were less susceptible to false memories. Individuals with better knowledge about Brexit showed better discrimination between true and false stories, while self-reported engagement with the Brexit debate was associated with an increased tendency to “remember” any story, regardless of its truth. These results implicate a combination of social and individual factors in the development of false memories from fake news, and suggest that exposure to social identity threats may enhance the polarising effects of fake news.

Deepfake false memories

ABSTRACT Machine-learning has enabled the creation of “deepfake videos”; highly-realistic footage that features a person saying or doing something they never did. In recent years, this technology has become more widespread and various apps now allow an average social-media user to create a deepfake video which can be shared online. There are concerns about how this may distort memory for public events, but to date no evidence to support this. Across two experiments, we presented participants (N = 682) with fake news stories in the format of text, text with a photograph or text with a deepfake video. Though participants rated the deepfake videos as convincing, dangerous, and unethical, and some participants did report false memories after viewing deepfakes, the deepfake video format did not consistently increase false memory rates relative to the text-only or text-with-photograph conditions. Further research is needed, but the current findings suggest that while deepfake videos can distort memory for public events, they may not always be more effective than simple misleading text.

Rich false memories of autobiographical events can be reversed

False memories of autobiographical events can create enormous problems in forensic settings (e.g., false accusations). While multiple studies succeeded in inducing false memories in interview settings, we present research trying to reverse this effect (and thereby reduce the potential damage) by means of two ecologically valid strategies. We first successfully implanted false memories for two plausible autobiographical events (suggested by the students' parents, alongside two true events). Over three repeated interviews, participants developed false memories (measured by state-of-the-art coding) of the suggested events under minimally suggestive conditions (27%) and even more so using massive suggestion (56%). We then used two techniques to reduce false memory endorsement, source sensitization (alerting interviewees to possible external sources of the memories, e.g., family narratives) and false memory sensitization (raising the possibility of false memories being inadvertently created in memory interviews, delivered by a new interviewer). This reversed the false memory build-up over the first three interviews, returning false memory rates in both suggestion conditions to the baseline levels of the first interview (i.e., to ∼15% and ∼25%, respectively). By comparison, true event memories were endorsed at a higher level overall and less affected by either the repeated interviews or the sensitization techniques. In a 1-y follow-up (after the original interviews and debriefing), false memory rates further dropped to 5%, and participants overwhelmingly rejected the false events. One strong practical implication is that false memories can be substantially reduced by easy-to-implement techniques without causing collateral damage to true memories.

CORRIGENDUM

Applied Cognitive PsychologyVolume 35, Issue 1 p. 317-317 CORRIGENDUM Free Access CORRIGENDUM This article corrects the following: Commentary for special issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology in honor of Alan Scoboria D. Stephen Lindsay Volume 34Issue 6Applied Cognitive Psychology pages: 1345-1349 First Published online: November 3, 2020 First published: 17 January 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3780 AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat D. Stephen Lindsay: ‘Commentary for special issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology in honor of Alan Scoboria.’ Applied Cognitive Psychology, 34,1345-1349. On page 1348 it was stated: “Brewin and Andrews (2017) reviewed the literature on false memories and argued that the rate of false memories in the real world is no higher than 15% of individuals exposed to suggestive influences. But any “upper limit” on the percentage of adults who can be led to experience false memories will depend on interactions among numerous variables.” In fact, the figure of 15% mentioned by Brewin and Andrews referred to the rate of false memories among experimental participants, and they did not claim anywhere in their article that it applied to the real world. The correct statement should be: Brewin and Andrews (2017) reviewed the literature on false memories and argued that the rate of full false autobiographical memories in that literature is no higher than 15% of individuals exposed to suggestive influences. In the real world, the percentage of adults who can be led to experience false memories will depend on interactions among numerous variables. This has been corrected within the article. The author apologies for this error. REFERENCE Lindsay, D. S. (2020). Commentary for special issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology in honor of Alan Scoboria. Appl Cognit Psychol, 34, 1345– 1349 https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3758. Wiley Online Library Web of Science®Google Scholar Volume35, Issue1January/February 2021Pages 317-317 ReferencesRelatedInformation

False memory for faces is produced by the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm based on the morphological characteristics of a list

Previous studies on false memory of non-semantic stimuli reported that false memories were produced for items that were unstudied but that were similar to the studied items. However, it remains unclear what representations of false memory are constructed by studied items and how the representations of studied items contribute to the occurrence of false memory. Therefore, we examined whether false memory is produced in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm for non-semantic stimuli (i.e., facial lists), which was divided according to the morphological characteristics quantified by principal component analysis, and whether the false memory rate could be quantitatively predicted by the morphological characteristics of the studied items with a regression analysis. Thirty-five participants memorized five faces and performed a recognition memory test, including an unstudied lure item whose morphological characteristics were approximately the average of the studied items. The results showed that the lure items were more likely to be falsely remembered than other unstudied items whose morphological characteristics were not the average of the studied items, indicating that false memory of non-semantic stimuli was produced in the DRM paradigm owing to the morphological characteristics of the studied items. In contrast, the false memory rate could not be quantitatively explained by each kind of morphological characteristic. This indicates that false memory was not caused by the particular morphological characteristic of the studied items. Moreover, these results implicate that false memory of non-semantic stimuli in the DRM paradigm was provoked by gist representation of the studied items.

False memory production in schizophrenia: A neurophysiological investigation

BackgroundThe topic of false memory in schizophrenia has been well documented in earlier research contributions. To date, there is no study exploring the implications of specific neural networks during this phenomenon in patients suffering from schizophrenia. MethodsWe compared 17 patients suffering from psychosis (SCZ) to 33 healthy controls (HC) performing a verbal memory task designed to produce false memories, i.e. the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm (DRM). Electroencephalography was used to specifically analyze the P2 and N400 event-related potentials components. ResultsThe SCZ patients showed a reduced ability to distinguish between true and false memories as assessed by the A′ index which was calculated based on the false and true memory rates. The morphology of the P2 differed in frontal electrode region with a lower amplitude in SCZ. In addition, the amplitude of N400 was more pronounced (more negative) in HC than in SCZ in centro-parietal electrode site. ConclusionsWe suggest that the differences found in P2 amplitude are associated with difficulties of SCZ patients to efficiently compare item-specific features of a mnesic elements to incoming stimuli which impair the subsequent verbal memory information processing reflected by the N400 component amplitude decrease. These results are consistent with the idea that SCZ use a different strategy while they perform the DRM paradigm.