Fallow Deer Population Research Articles

Nutritional niche separation between native roe deer and the nonnative fallow deer\u2014a test of interspecific competition

On an evolutionary time scale, competition for food drives species formation by genetic adaptations to the environment and subsequent niche separation. On a short-term scale, animals use different strategies to meet their nutritional requirements, which ultimately influence their fitness. Understanding these adaptations in herbivores is especially important in temperate climates where animals have adapted both physiologically and behaviorally to seasonal variations in order to meet their nutritional requirements. The aim of this project was to investigate temporal variation in chemical composition of rumen content between two coexisting species of large herbivores, the native roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) and the introduced fallow deer (Dama dama L.), as well as a potential effect of competition on niche separation (interspecific differences in rumen nutrient composition). We analyzed 345 rumen samples collected from animals at one 95 km2 estate, Koberg, in southwestern Sweden. Based on samples from all seasons, temporal variation in nutrient composition and interspecific differences between the two deer species were investigated under two contrasting fallow deer population densities. Results revealed that nutrient composition varied between species and across seasons. Roe deer had a higher proportion of rumen protein compared to fallow deer, with the highest proportions in spring. In contrast, fallow deer had a higher proportion of rumen hemicellulose compared to roe deer in spring, while no differences in nutrient composition between species could be found in fall. Overall, there were greater differences between the two species when fallow deer density was high and competition likely more pronounced than when fallow deer density was low. The results from this study can be used to understand interspecific competition and how it fosters niche separation between coexisting large herbivores.

The spatio-temporal co-occurrence of free-ranging common fallow deer and domestic caprines on the island of Rhodes, Greece

Abstract The Dama dama dama population of the island of Rhodes has an important conservation significance because of its unique genetic characters. Currently, many are the factors that threaten its survival. Aim of this paper is to provide the first data on the spatio-temporal co-occurrence between the only free-ranging Greek population of common fallow deer and local domestic caprines. Kilometric abundance index (KAI) was derived from spotlight counts. The unattended domestic caprines appear to impact on fallow deer, in particular during fawning season. Livestock monitoring over time can act as a proxy indicator of the status of this deer population.

Temperate forests respond in a non-linear way to a population gradient of wild deer

Abstract Wild deer exert strong top–down control on forest composition by browsing on palatable trees, and these effects are exacerbated as red, fallow, and roe deer populations increase in northern temperate forests. However, the relationship between deer abundance and plant recruitment remains poorly documented. Here, we combined camera trap and vegetation plot data to quantify the shape of the relationship between habitat utilization by deer (red, fallow and roe deer) with different components of the forest understory in ten sites distributed across a temperate mixed forest in the Veluwe, the Netherlands. The list of forest attributes included the density, richness and diversity of saplings, the proportion of conifers to broadleaves, the number of browsed broadleaves and conifers, the forest basal area, the understory cover of shrubs, moss and bare soil and the depth of the litter layer. When applying General Linear Mixed Models to those camera trap data, six of the eleven forest variables were related to the utilization level (UL) by deer. With increasing UL by fallow deer, there was a decrease in sapling species richness (β = −0.26). With increasing UL by red deer, there was a decrease in litter depth (β = −0.14) and an increase in browsed broadleaf stems (β = 0.40). With increasing UL by roe deer, there was a decrease in species richness of sapling plants (β = −0.26), Shannon diversity (β = −0.11) and shrub cover (β = −0.36), whereas there was an increase in stem density (β = 0.06). When combining all deer species into one guild, a negative relation was found between UL by deer and sapling richness (β = −0.21), diversity (β = −0.09) and litter depth (β = −0.14) and a positive relation with sampling density (β = 0.04). The relationship between UL by deer and different forest attributes followed a linear log10 shape. When back transforming, the response was curvilinear with large changes at a low UL and small changes when the UL was high. Yet, the exact shape of the curve varied according to (a) biotic factors specific to each study location. The conservation of temperate forests can benefit from limiting the size of deer populations and the time deer spend browsing in forest patches with high biodiversity value.

No genetic signature of glacial refugia in current European fallow deer (Dama dama dama L., 1758) populations: a comment on Baker et al. (2017)

Genetic data are crucial for making inferences about the evolutionary history of species and deriving guidelines for conservation strategies. In conservation genetics studies, each step should be critically evaluated, from sampling strategy to data quality assessment and analytical methods: potential issues and biases should be considered, reproducibility should be guaranteed and the results of different analyses should be critically evaluated. By incorporating all these steps, we re-analysed data from Baker et al. (Heredity 119:16–26, 2017): our results led to conclusions that contradict the ones reached by the authors, which were based on weak support and biased analyses. European fallow deer current genetic makeup most likely derives from extensive human-mediated translocations. The genetic expectations of glacial refugia hypothesis cannot be found in current European fallow deer populations.

The natural history of the fallow deer, Dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758) in Bulgaria in prehistory and new evidence for the existence of an autochthonous Holocene population in the Balkans

AbstractThe fallow deer (Dama dama Linnaeus, 1758) has a long history of interaction with prehistoric humans. Beginning in the Neolithic, humans introduced fallow deer to several areas of the eastern Mediterranean and mainland Europe, with later additional importing happening in the Bronze and Iron Ages. However, in some parts of southeastern Europe, autochthonous populations of extant fallow deer may have survived through the end of the Pleistocene and into the early Holocene, making them available for exploitation by Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities. Climatic and vegetational regimes favourable to fallow deer covered nearly all of Bulgaria during this period; yet, the heavy use of the species by human communities was restricted to a very small area around southeastern Bulgaria. Eventually, climate deterioration, habitat change and overhunting led to the decline of fallow deer in later prehistory in Bulgaria. This paper offers a discussion of the environmental and cultural background of human‐fallow deer interactions from the sixth to fourth millennium BCE in Bulgaria. Using bivariate scatterplots and log ratio techniques, we demonstrate that Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities exploited a large extant fallow‐deer population, appearing to target both males and females equally. Our results are the first step in a larger archaeological investigation of human‐fallow deer relations that unfolded over several millennia, touching upon issues of settlement, migration and perhaps even taming or domestication.

REM: performance on a high-density fallow deer (Dama dama) population

We present an application of the random encounter model (REM) to estimate population density of a closed population of fallow deer (Dama dama). REM promises to be a powerful tool for providing density estimates for species which are not individually recognisable, but it still requires thorough testing to assess its limits and performance. In our study area, effective fencing prevents animals from migrating in or out of the area thus assuring a closed population; still the application of REM presented several challenges, including a very high density (more than 600 ind/km2) and a constant fission/fusion of groups of the study species. We applied both stratified and unstratified analysis approach, and we estimated density over a range of daily range values. The REM approach underestimates the true density value of about 31% and 28% the CV of the estimates was 0.39 and 0.52, for stratified and unstratified approach, respectively. Still it provides evidence in support of REM as a method for providing density estimates of free-ranging unmarked individuals with a fission–fusion social structure.

A simple use of camera traps for photogrammetric estimation of wild animal traits

AbstractThe measurement of physical traits of animals is an important topic in animal ecology and wildlife management, but it is quite difficult to achieve an acceptable level of accuracy, especially for free‐ranging wild animals. As a non‐invasive method, camera trapping has become a common tool for detecting and monitoring wild animals. In this study, we combined camera‐trapping images and a photogrammetry technique to present a camera trap‐based photogrammetric estimation (CTPE) approach for robust measurement of morphological traits of animals. We first tested our method in a captive population of fallow deer (Dama dama) and compared the estimated shoulder heights by CTPE with corresponding hand measurements. The results revealed a remarkable accuracy, with an expected measurement error within ± 5 cm. Second, we mainly demonstrated a field application of CTPE in a wild population of Altai wapiti (Cervus elaphus sibiricus) in the Kanas National Nature Reserve, Xinjiang, China. For wapiti, we found that the average shoulder height of males was 135 ± 9 cm (mean ± sd, n = 30) and that of females was 125 ± 6 cm (n = 37), with all data significantly fitting a normal distribution. We did not find any differences in CTPE results among cameras, between photograph types (colour vs. black and white) or temperatures. No significant difference existed between our results and the hand‐measured shoulder heights of wapiti from deer farms. Finally, we discussed the strengths, limitations and potential extensions of the method. We suggest that the combination of camera trapping and the photogrammetry technique is quite promising and that CTPE has great potential in wildlife field investigations.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama) as a Reservoir of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC).

Simple SummaryInfections caused by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) are the third most typically reported zoonosis within the European Union after campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis. STEC pathogens are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans, including haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), haemorrhagic colitis (HC) and diarrhoea (D). Red deer, roe deer and wild boars are important environmental reservoirs of foodborne pathogens that may cause serious diseases in humans and contaminate fresh food products. The occurrence of STEC and attaching and effacing (AE)-STEC in the Polish population of wild fallow deer was analysed in this study. The presence of potentially pathogenic STEC/AE-STEC in fallow deer poses a risk of carcass contamination, which could have serious consequences because venison can also be consumed raw as carpaccio or steak tartare. Only a few reports on wild animals as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens in European countries have been published to date, and the present study attempts to fill in this knowledge gap by assessing the possible epidemiological risk related to STEC/AE-STEC in fallow deer. Three isolates had the virulence profile that is associated with HUS/D/HC according to the FAO/WHO report. The results of this study suggest that fallow deer are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC that are potentially pathogenic to humans.Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans. Only a few reports on fallow deer as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens have been published to date. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of STEC strains in the fallow deer population in Poland. In all, 94 fallow deer swabs were tested. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes and to perform O and H serotyping. STEC and attaching and effacing (AE)-STEC were identified in 13 isolates (13.83%). The most hazardous virulence profile was detected in three strains, namely stx2d serotype O103:HNM, eae/stx1a serotype O26:HNM and eae/stx1a serotype O157:H7. The predominant stx gene was stx2, which was identified in 76.92% of isolates. E. coli O157 was detected in 4/94 (4.26%). Other E. coli serogroups, O26, O103, O111 and O145, were identified in 14/94 fallow deer (14.89%). The present findings suggest that fallow deer are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC that are potentially pathogenic to humans.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolates from red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Poland

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) pathogens are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans, including haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), bloody diarrhoea (BD) and diarrhoea (D), and they pose a significant public health concern. Wild ruminants are an important environmental reservoir of foodborne pathogens that can cause serious illnesses in humans and contaminate fresh products. There is a general scarcity of published data about wildlife as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens in Poland, which is why the potential epidemiological risk associated with red deer, roe deer and fallow deer as reservoirs of STEC/AE-STEC strains was evaluated in this study. The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of STEC strains in red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) populations in north-eastern Poland, and to evaluate the potential health risk associated with wild ruminants carrying STEC/AE-STEC strains.We examined 252 rectal swabs obtained from 134 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 97 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 21 fallow deer (Dama dama) in north-eastern Poland. The samples were enriched in modified buffered peptone water. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were conducted to determine the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes, and to perform O and H serotyping.E. coli O157:H7 isolates were detected in the rectal swabs collected from 1/134 roe deer (0.75%) and 4/97 red deer (4.1%), and they were not detected in fallow deer (Dama dama). The remaining E. coli serogroups, namely O26, O103, O111 and O145 that belong to the “top five” non-O157 serogroups, were detected in 15/134 roe deer (11.19%), 18/97 red deer (18.56%) and 2/21 fallow deer (9.52%).STEC/AE-STEC strains were detected in 33 roe deer isolates (24.63%), 21 red deer isolates (21.65%) and 2 fallow deer isolates (9.52%). According to the most recent FAO/WHO report, stx2a and eae genes are the primary virulence traits associated with HUS, and these genes were identified in one roe deer isolate and one red deer isolate. Stx2 was the predominant stx gene, and it was detected in 78.79% of roe deer and in 71.43% of red deer isolates.The results of this study confirmed that red deer and roe deer in north-eastern Poland are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC strains that are potentially pathogenic for humans. This is the first report documenting the virulence of STEC/AE-STEC strains from wild ruminants in Poland.

Interactions between a population of fallow deer (Dama dama), humans and crops in a managed composite temperate landscape in southern Sweden: Conflict or opportunity?

Landscapes composed of agricultural land mixed with forest are desirable since they provide a wide range of diversified ecosystem services, unlike specialized agricultural landscapes, but that creates a trade-off between these land uses since wildlife usually feed on crops and reduce yields. In Nordic countries, where human population density is low and game hunting can be a viable economic alternative, mixed landscape systems are particularly interesting. To evaluate the economic sustainability of such systems we need to quantify wildlife damage to crops. One important species, being popular among Swedish hunters and therefore economically valuable, is fallow deer (Dama dama). Our objective was to evaluate the economic sustainability of mixed landscape systems including cultivated fields and commercial hunting of fallow deer. We studied the effects of excluding fallow deer by using 86 exclosures and adjacent plots in winter wheat and oat fields in south-west Sweden. We analyzed yield losses and interactions between spatial and temporal grazing patterns, anthropogenic landscape features, and topological characteristics of the landscape. We found that animals avoided exposed spots, irrespective of distance from human activity. We also found a seasonal grazing pattern related to the different growing periods of winter wheat (more grazed, emerging in autumn) and spring oat (less grazed, emerging in spring). We then compared the costs of crop damage against the commercial value of fallow deer hunting. The damage amounted to 375 ±196 € ha-1 for wheat and 152 ±138 € ha-1 for oat, corresponding to a total cost per animal of 82.7 ±81.0 €, while each animal had an estimated market value of approximately 100 €. Therefore the value of fallow deer presence compensated for the associated cost of crop damage. Profit could be further improved in this case by adopting additional management strategies. In general our study confirmed the economic feasibility of this particular mixed land management.

The relationship between the phosphate and structural carbonate fractionation of fallow deer bioapatite in tooth enamel.

RationaleThe species‐specific relationship between phosphate (δ18OP values) and structural carbonate (δ18OC values) oxygen isotope ratios has been established for several modern and fossil animal species but until now it has not been investigated in European fallow deer (Dama dama dama). This study describes the relationship between phosphate and structural carbonate bioapatite in tooth enamel of extant fallow deer, which will help us further understand the species' unique environmental and cultural history.MethodsThe oxygen isotope composition of phosphate (δ18OP value) and structural carbonate (δ18OC value) of hydroxylapatite was determined in 51 modern fallow deer tooth enamel samples from across Europe and West Asia. The δ18OC values were measured on a GV IsoPrime dual‐inlet mass spectrometer and the δ18OP values on a temperature‐controlled elemental analyser (TC/EA) coupled to a DeltaPlus XL isotope ratio mass spectrometer via a ConFlo III interface.ResultsThis study establishes a direct and linear relationship between the δ18OC and δ18OP values from fallow deer tooth enamel (δ18OC = +9.244(±0.216) + 0.958 * δ18OP (±0.013)). Despite the successful regression, the variation in δ18O values from samples collected in the same geographical area is greater than expected, although the results cluster in broad climatic groupings when Koppen‐Geiger classifications are taken into account for the individuals' locations.ConclusionsThis is the first comprehensive study of the relationship between ionic forms of oxygen (phosphate oxygen and structural carbonate) in fallow deer dental enamel. The new equation will allow direct comparison with other herbivore data. Variable δ18O values within populations of fallow deer broadly reflect the ecological zones they are found in which may explain this pattern of results in other euryphagic species.

Maternal genetic variation in the northeastern Hungarian fallow deer (Dama dama) population

Hungary has one of the strongest fallow deer (Dama dama dama) populations in the world. This is confirmed by the fact that the latest two world-record trophies were bagged at Gúth in northeastern Hungary. Despite this, no information about the genetic diversity or structure of this population has been published. In this work, we present a first assessment of the maternal genetic variability of the fallow deer populations in northeastern part of Hungary. We sequenced 41 animals for a 450 fragment of the control region of mitochondrial DNA. Three haplotypes were detected, and two of them were novel. An alignment was created using our sequences together with an additional 39 mtDNA control-region haplotypes (comprising 218 sequences) downloaded from GenBank. The results based on phylogenetic trees (Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood) and median-joining network showed distinct groups: (1) including fallow deer from Italy and Germany; (2) contained samples from Iberia (Spain and Portugal); (3) included Rhodian and a few Italian fallow deers; (4) comprised sequences from Canada, Africa, the Middle East, and across Europe (including Hungary) and (5) including individuals from Anatolia (Turkey), which showed a lower level of mitochondrial diversity compared to the other groups. BAPS program suggested 8 clusters within fallow deer sequences. All our sequences from northeastern Hungary fell into one cluster. AMOVA analysis showed that 87.47% of the genetic variation was included among the BAPS clusters and 12.53% of the variations was observed within the eight clusters. The neutrality tests indicate that populations belong to cluster1 (Italian and German fallow deer) may have experienced recent population expansion event. It is also clearly apparent that the current patterns of genetic diversity are mainly influenced by anthropogenic factors.

Pre-, postnatal growth and maternal condition in a free ranging fallow deer population

We studied prenatal and postnatal growth rates and maternal effects in fallow deer (Dama dama) populations in free-ranging habitats in the Carpathian Basin. Data in this five-year long study were collected from pregnant females from December to the end of the hunting season (February), from newborns (May-June) and from 4–12 months-old fawns (October-June) in southwestern Hungary (Lábod region). The aims were to analyze foetal growth rate, assess the interaction between prenatal growth and maternal condition, and to examine factors influencing birth mass, and to measure fawn growth rates. During the study period foetal body mass (BM), body length (BL) and head length (HL) showed sigmoid growth. Correlations (rP) among the three features (BM, BL and HL) ranged from 0.78 to 0.93. Foetal BM was a quadratic function of foetal BL in both sexes. Foetal BM was linearly and negatively related to maternal kidney-fat-index (KFI) and body mass. Average birth mass was greater in males (4.66 kg) than females (4.31 kg), and it was greater in the middle of the fawning season (in the middle of June) than in the beginning (in May). The BM and the KFI of the fawns decreased at the end of the winter (February, eight months of age) but increased thereafter. The growth analysis of fawns generally showed that males compared with the females were heavier and larger; however it was not manifested clearly in all cases.

First report of Leptospira infections in red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer in Poland

Abstract Introduction: Recently in Europe an increase in the population of red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and fallow deer (Dama dama) has been observed. Research on the prevalence of Leptospira infections in Polish cervids has been performed for the first time. Material and Methods: During 2014/2015 hunting season, 147 blood samples from red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer were collected. The animals originated from different geographical regions across Poland. Serum samples were tested by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) for the presence of specific antibodies to the following Leptospira serovars: Icterohaemorrhagiae, Grippotyphosa, Sejroe, Tarassovi, Pomona, Canicola, Bratislava, Hardjo, Ballum, Zanoni, Hebdomadis, and Poi. Results: Serum antibody titres specific to Grippotyphosa, Pomona, and Zanoni serovars were found; none of the sera were positive for any of the other serovars. Out of 147 serum samples only 7 were positive, which gave an overall prevalence of 4.8% in the tested animal population. Conclusion: The low Leptospira antibody titres along with the low number of positive serum samples in deer indicate that these animals may not act as significant reservoirs of Leptospira for either humans or animals in Poland.

Dental Defects as a Potential Indicator of Chronic Malnutrition in a Population of Fallow Deer (Dama dama) from Northwestern Germany

We studied enamel defects in mandibular cheek teeth of fallow deer from an enclosed population that had grown far beyond the carrying capacity of its habitat. Macroscopic inspection revealed a high frequency of pathological enamel alterations in the permanent premolars and the third molar, which form late during dental development, while earlier forming teeth (deciduous premolars and first molar) were generally not affected. Macroscopic enamel alterations comprised opacity and posteruptive discoloration, loss of occlusal enamel ridges, and presence of enamel surface lesions. Backscattered electron imaging in the SEM revealed a marked hypomineralization and related increased porosity of the outer compared to the central and inner enamel portions in the affected teeth. In contrast, the enamel of the unaffected first molars showed a homogeneous high degree of mineralization. Microindentation hardness testing demonstrated a significantly reduced and highly variable hardness of the outer enamel of the affected teeth. The recorded enamel alterations are indicative of a disturbance of enamel maturation. Based on findings of experimental studies by other authors that explored the effects of dietary deficiencies on the mineralization of dental hard tissues in different mammal species, we suggest a dietary calcium deficiency as the cause of the observed pathological enamel changes in the fallow deer. The supposed calcium deficiency only affected teeth whose crown mineralization takes place after weaning, while the deciduous premolars and the first molar, whose crown formation occurs prenatally or during the early postnatal period of intense milk feeding, were unaffected. Anat Rec, 299:1409-1423, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Depredatory impact of free-roaming domestic dogs on Mediterranean deer in southern Spain: implications for human-wolf conflict

Feral domestic dogs are efficient wild ungulate hunters in many parts of the world. This has not been confirmed in Mediterranean ecosystems. However, if feral dogs can predate upon wild Mediterranean ungulates, they can also do so upon livestock. Therefore, to more realistically understand human-wolf conflict in areas where wolves and feral dogs overlap, the possible role of the latter taking domestic prey should be considered. During a 6-month study period, we carried out daily observations of a pack of medium-sized dogs, where they were the only large-bodied carnivore capable of killing ungulates in a fenced estate in southern Spain. The estate contained sizeable populations of red deer, fallow deer and mouflons, but no livestock. We described feral dog predation patterns and depredatory impact. We found that dogs predated upon a total of 57 ungulates; fallow deer (47 %), red deer (37 %), and mouflon (16 %). Red deer adults were the least frequent prey, but dogs killed significantly more females and fawns of red and fallow deer. Mouflons were attacked indistinctly. Our results suggest that dogs in our study exhibited a kill pattern similar to Iberian wolves. Therefore, in areas where wolves and feral dogs coexist, a significant proportion of livestock predation could be falsely attributed to the wild canid. In addition, the presence of feral dogs may be a cause of risk in big game hunting estates.

Monitoring populations of a guild of ungulates: implications for the conservation of a relict Mediterranean forest

We reviewed information on the population dynamics of ungulate populations in the Preserve of Castelporziano, Italy. Based upon hunting bags, long-term series of indices of abundance are available for fallow deer (Dama dama), wild boar (Sus scrofa majori), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus italicus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) for the period from 1878 to 1986. In the absence of large predators, but in presence of hunting, population regulation is basically determined by density dependence. However, our data also show that roe deer are competitively affected by fallow deer, while the dynamics of wild boar is relatively disconnected from those of cervids. The impacts of climate and habitat variations on the growth rates of ungulates appeared to have limited relevance in this ecosystem. Standardised counts on green flush areas in spring, performed annually since 1988, show the presence of important interactions among the different species and the negative impact of fallow deer on roe deer. Further, spring counts suggest that wild boar populations exhibit stable fluctuations within a 3–5-year period. Nocturnal distance sampling estimates of fallow deer and wild boar populations, available since 2002, confirmed the broad picture obtained by spring counts, but also allowed us to estimate the actual population size and compute appropriate confidence intervals. The evaluation of the pros and cons of different monitoring methods is relevant to wildlife agencies to select the ones most suitable for offering a particular type of information and to underpin informed decisions on the best management practices to implement.

Conservation and management of fallow deer (Dama dama dama L.)on Lemnos Island, Greece

A small population of European fallow deer (Dama dama dama L.) was transferred to Myrina, Lemnos Island, Greece, in the early 1970s from the island of Rhodes. Since the Rhodian population may preserve a remarkable proportion of the original genetic diversity, it is necessary to preserve its offspring population. Our objective was to estimate population size, vegetation cover, and key stakeholder attitudes towards deer on the island, based on personal interviews. Following the visual inspection method, we estimated that there were 47 fallow deer in the fortress area (38 females, 3 males, and 6 fawns). For the total ground cover inventory we used the subplot sampling method. In most areas trees were either browsed or frayed, vegetation cover was insufficient, and dry mass amount was not adequate to support the entire ungulate population. However, lack of nutritious matter supply is covered by additional food and water supply provided by the Myrina municipality and volunteers. In general, the key stakeholders of Lemnos expressed a positive attitude towards fallow deer; however, all concluded that the deer population should be kept at its current size and restricted to the fortress peninsula to avoid potential vehicle collisions and damage to crops and gardens.

Dead or alive? Investigating long-distance transport of live fallow deer and their body parts in antiquity

The extent to which breeding populations of fallow deer were established in Roman Europe has been obscured by the possibility that the skeletal remains of the species, in particular Dama foot bones and antlers, were traded over long distances as objects in their own right. This paper sets out to refine our understanding of the evidence for the transportation of living and dead fallow deer in Iron Age and Roman Europe. To achieve this, museum archives containing purportedly early examples of Dama antler were searched, with available specimens sampled for carbon, nitrogen and strontium isotope analyses, and compared with data for archaeological fallow deer from across Europe. Importantly, the resulting isotope values can be interpreted in light of new modern baseline data for fallow deer presented here. Together these multi-isotope results for modern and archaeological fallow deer provide a more critical perspective on the transportation of fallow deer and their body parts in antiquity.

Distribution of Salmonella, Arcobacter, and thermophilic Campylobacter spp. among Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) population in Dasht-e-Arzhan Wildlife refuge, southern Iran

There is not any information about incidence of main human pathogenic bacteria among the endangered species, Persian fallow deer, around the world. The study was conducted on a population of Persian fallow deer in Dasht-e-Arzhan area, southern Iran, to determine the distribution of Salmonella, Arcobacter, and human pathogen thermophilic Campylobacter species. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was done using specific primers for detection of three pathogen bacteria after enrichment process. Among 63 fecal samples, 52.3 % (33/63) and 11.1 % (7/63) were positive for presence of Campylobacter and Arcobacter species, respectively. According to culture and PCR methods, the Salmonella was not isolated from the fecal samples. Multiplex PCR revealed that 17 and three samples were positive for Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, respectively. According to the results, the Persian fallow deer can be considered as an important carrier for arcobacters and pathogen Campylobacter and can spread the infectious agents to the water sources of the area which can be hazardous for public health.