Fairness Expectations Research Articles

Feeling left out or just surprised? Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in adolescence.

Social belonging is an important human drive that influences mood and behavior. Neural responses to social exclusion are well-characterized, but the specificity of these responses to processing rejection-related affective distress is unknown. The present study compares neural responses to exclusion and overinclusion, a condition that similarly violates fairness expectations but does not involve rejection, with a focus on implications for models of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and anterior insula (AI) function. In an fMRI adaptation of the Cyberball paradigm with adolescents aged 11.1-17.7 years (N = 69), we employed parametric modulators to examine scaling of neural signal with cumulative exclusion and inclusion events, an approach that overcomes arbitrary definitions of condition onsets/offsets imposed on fluid, continuous gameplay. We identified positive scaling of dACC and posterior insula response with cumulative exclusion events, but these same regions exhibited trending signal decreases with cumulative inclusion events. Furthermore, areas within the dACC and insula also responded to context incongruency (throws to the participant in the exclusion run; throws between computer players in the overinclusion run). These findings caution against interpretations that responses in these regions uniquely reflect the affective distress of exclusion within social interaction paradigms. We further identified that the left ventrolateral PFC, rostromedial PFC, and left intraparietal sulcus responded similarly to cumulative exclusion and inclusion. These findings shed light on which neural regions exhibit patterns of differential sensitivity to exclusion or overinclusion, as well as those that are more broadly engaged by both types of social interaction.

Moral judgment modulates fairness consideration in the early outcome evaluation stage

Morality, concern for the welfare of others, is an important criterion of how individuals treat others, including justice, fairness, and rights. Moral judgment is the process of evaluating the behavior of others and oneself according to social norms. Morality might affect social cooperation with others by entailing the belief that someone should be rewarded or punished. The ultimatum game is a classic paradigm that can be used to study the fairness behavior of social cooperation. Previous studies have shown that some social factors (e.g., social distance, social exclusion, and social evaluation) influence fairness behavior in the ultimatum game. Using the event-related potential (ERP) technique to examine the neural basis of the ultimatum game, studies found that feedback-related negativity (FRN) was modulated by social factors. This effect indicates that the influence of social factors mainly appears in the early stage of outcome evaluation. However, the influence of moral judgment on social cooperation and its neural mechanism remains unclear. The present study focused on whether moral judgment would affect fairness consideration in the early outcome evaluation stage. For this purpose, we used moral sentences within the ultimatum game to assess the influence of moral judgment and fairness of offers on decision-making. A total of 25 participants who acted as respondents completed the ultimatum game with blood donors, murderers, and unidentified individuals as proposers. A moral sentence (e.g., He is a blood donor) was given as a reminder of the moral identity of the players before each round. Participants were told that other players would gain ￥50, and proposers would make an allocation offer. There were five types of allocation offers: ￥5, ￥10, ￥15, ￥20 or ￥25. Participants were asked to accept or reject the offers. At the same time, the ERP was locked to the onset of the offers. The acceptance rate of each offer was included in the behavioral data. The dependent variable was the acceptance rate of the five allocation offers and moral primes were the independent variable when performing one-way ANOVAs. Regarding ERP data, ￥5 and ￥10 were considered as unfair offers and ￥20 and ￥25 as fair offers in order to analyze the amplitudes of FRN and P300. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs (moral judgment, three levels; offer fairness, two levels) were performed to compare ERP data. Behavioral results showed that the acceptance rate of unfair offers from blood donors was significantly higher than that of murderers. Furthermore, the acceptance rate of fair offers from murderers was significantly lower than that of blood donors and unidentified individuals. ERP results revealed that the FRN amplitude was more negative-going in response to unfair than to fair offers. The fairness of offers modulated FRN amplitude only regarding blood donors, but not for murderers and unidentified individual conditions. P300 was larger for fair offers compared to unfair offers and was not affected by moral judgment. These results indicate that when moral judgment conflicts with the fairness criterion, individuals might rely on moral judgment to make decisions. People may have a higher expectation of fairness from individuals with high moral standards, while unfair behaviors could induce strong negative emotions. FRN represents unfair behaviors that violate social norms and shows that the early outcome evaluation stage is also modulated by moral judgment, while the late stage is independent of moral judgment.

Cooperation and obligation in early parent-child relationships.

Tomasello's moral psychology of obligation would be developmentally deepened by greater attention to early experiences of cooperation and shared social agency between parents and infants, evolved to promote infant survival. They provide a foundation for developing understanding of the mutual obligations of close relationships that contribute (alongside peer experiences) to growing collaborative skills, fairness expectations, and fidelity to social norms.

Authority fairness for all? Intergroup status and expectations of procedural justice and resource distribution

Authorities such as the police and the government play a vital function in maintaining order in the social systems in which groups exist. Relational models of procedural justice (PJ) state that fair treatment from authority affirms the social standing of those identifying with the authority, communicating inclusion and respect. Previous research suggests that social identity may also inform expectations of authority fairness. Focusing on an intergroup context of authority decision-making, the present research tests a novel hypothesis regarding whether intergroup social status may also inform expectations of authority fairness in terms of fair treatment and favourable outcomes. Operationalising PJ as the extent to which people are provided voice by authorities, three experimental studies showed no effect of intergroup status on expected PJ from authority. A sample weighed internal meta-analysis (N = 704) also provided no support for the hypothesis that relative outgroup status shapes expectations of voice from authority (d = -.02). Intergroup status did, however, influence the extent to which people expected authorities to distribute resources favourably towards the outgroups. Lower status outgroups were expected to receive less favourable outcomes from authorities than equal status outgroups (d = -.23). Thus, outgroup status affects people’s judgements of the resources that outgroups deserve from authority. The present research is among the first to consider how intergroup relations may drive expectations of how authorities will act towards other social groups. Implications for wielding authority and the role of perceived intergroup threat in intergroup settings are discussed.

Personal characteristics and applicants’ perceptions of procedural fairness in a selection context

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine a varied set of personal characteristics (i.e. cultural values tied to Confucianism, Big Five personality attributes and test experience) for their combined ability to predict job applicants’ expected and experienced procedural fairness in the context of personnel selection.Design/methodology/approachA total of 324 applicants were surveyed as part of a process to select entry-level positions at a large IT manufacturing company in eastern China. Data were gathered in two waves, such that applicants’ personal characteristics and fairness expectations were obtained prior to their perceptions of procedural fairness, which were collected after the selection interview.FindingsConfucian values, neuroticism, conscientiousness and test experience all predicted applicants’ procedural fairness expectations. Only test experience had both direct and indirect effects on procedural justice perceptions. All other effects involving personal characteristics and experience of procedural fairness were mediated by applicants’ fairness expectations.Research limitations/implicationsThe demonstration of the impact of a varied set of personal characteristics on applicants’ perceptions of procedural fairness is consistent with theory-driven models intended to understand and predict these perceptions. The findings suggest, among other considerations, that multinational businesses cannot assume that a standardized approach to selection will be viewed in the same manner by applicants across national contexts.Originality/valueThe authors show, in an operational employee selection context, how a varied set of personal characteristics can usefully combine to predict applicants’ procedural fairness expectations, as well as their experience of procedural fairness.

Universal standards for the concept of trust in online dispute resolution systems in e-commerce disputes

Abstract The need for an appropriate jurisdiction for electronic commerce disputes has led to the well-established mechanism for solving disputes through the internet known as the Online Dispute Resolution (ODR). Currently, there is no universal agreement about the concept of trust in ODR systems, although this issue has been widely discussed in the field of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). The current study aimed to develop a set of standards to enhance trust and confidence in using ODR systems. In this study, we have adopted a new approach in the ODR field, and no similar research has been conducted. This study used a quantitative (online survey) and mainly qualitative approach (interview) for gathering data. After analysing data, this research identified three elements as standards to measure trust in ODR systems including knowledge, expectations of fairness and code of ethics. Finally, our findings provide several practical and methodological implications.

Actavis Group PTC EHF v ICOS Corporation

Abstract H1 Patents – European Patents – Pharmaceuticals – Tadalafil – Dosing regimens – Revocation – Obviousness – Obvious to try – Fair expectation of success – Relevant factors – Dose ranging studies – Routine tests – Whether permissible to take into account information not available at priority date – The “patent bargain” – The “problem-and-solution” approach – Role of the appellate court – Appeal to Supreme Court

Do Infants in the First Year of Life Expect Equal Resource Allocations?

Recent research has provided converging evidence, using multiple tasks, of sensitivity to fairness in the second year of life. In contrast, findings in the first year have been mixed, leaving it unclear whether young infants possess an expectation of fairness. The present research examined the possibility that young infants might expect windfall resources to be divided equally between similar recipients, but might demonstrate this expectation only under very simple conditions. In three violation-of-expectation experiments, 9-month-olds (N = 120) expected an experimenter to divide two cookies equally between two animated puppets (1:1), and they detected a violation when she divided them unfairly instead (2:0). The same positive result was obtained whether the experimenter gave the cookies one by one to the puppets (Experiments 1–2) or first separated them onto placemats and then gave each puppet a placemat (Experiment 3). However, a negative result was obtained when four (as opposed to two) cookies were allocated: Infants looked about equally whether they saw a fair (2:2) or an unfair (3:1) distribution (Experiment 3). A final experiment revealed that 4-month-olds (N = 40) also expected an experimenter to distribute two cookies equally between two animated puppets (Experiment 4). Together, these and various control results support two broad conclusions. First, sensitivity to fairness emerges very early in life, consistent with claims that an abstract expectation of fairness is part of the basic structure of human moral cognition. Second, this expectation can at first be observed only under simple conditions, and speculations are offered as to why this might be the case.

Victimhood, truth and criminal justice failure in relation to anti-homosexual violence and killings in New South Wales

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses and analyses the consequences of the inadequate criminal justice response regarding victims of fatal anti-homosexual/transgender violence in New South Wales (NSW) in the late twentieth century, and subsequent developments and claims that have either continued or resisted this pattern. It outlines the complexities around key investigations into unsolved homicides dismissed as accidents, suicides, or low priority killings, with the possibility that these classifications are related to a view of homosexual/transgender victims as unworthy of full state attention. The next challenge is moving beyond the individualistic frame of understanding victimhood in crimes targeting members of these minority groups, and any naïve faith that existing pro-victim measures alone will result in systemic openness and equal treatment. The authors suggest that attempts to clarify victim’s legislative rights, enhanced opportunities to recount victim experience, a consolidation of the Coroner’s investigative role, and establishment of a related expert “death review” team, are all worthwhile goals. Finally, we stress that an open NSW Police apology over inadequate past investigations, as well as the promise to seriously re-investigate unsolved cases, are a fair expectation that could also serve to foster victim healing in relation to these crimes.

Do Infants Attribute Moral Traits? Fourteen-Month-Olds' Expectations of Fairness Are Affected by Agents' Antisocial Actions.

We investigated whether and how infants link the domains of harm, help and fairness. Fourteen-month-old infants were familiarized with a character that either helped or hindered another agent's attempts to reach the top of a hill. Then, in the test phase they saw the helper or the hinderer carrying out an equal or an unequal distribution toward two identical recipients. Infants who saw the helper performing an unequal distribution looked longer than those who saw the helper performing an equal distribution, whereas infants who saw the hinderer performing an unequal distribution looked equally long than those who saw the hinderer performing an equal distribution. These results suggest that infants linked the hindering actions to a diminished propensity for distributive fairness. This provides support for theories that posit an early emerging ability to attribute moral traits to agents and to generate socio-moral evaluations of their actions.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS - Infants expect agents that previously helped another agent to perform egalitarian distributions, but they do not generate such expectation about agents that previously hindered another agent.- This ability to link hindering and distributive actions is important because it may help the development of reasoning about agents' stable moral traits.- Results provide support for recent theories on early social evaluation skills and they constraint theories on the acquisition of moral competence.

ACTAVIS GROUP PTC EFH v ICOS CORPORATION1

Patents – European Patents – Pharmaceuticals – Tadalafil – Dosing regimens – Revocation – Infringement – Construction – Priority – Added matter – Novelty – Co-pending applications – Entitlement to priority – Burden of proof – Obviousness – Obvious to try – Fair expectation of success – Dose ranging studies – Appeal to Court of Appeal

Neurobiological Mechanisms of Responding to Injustice.

People are particularly sensitive to injustice. Accordingly, deeper knowledge regarding the processes that underlie the perception of injustice, and the subsequent decisions to either punish transgressors or compensate victims, is of important social value. By combining a novel decision-making paradigm with functional neuroimaging, we identified specific brain networks that are involved with both the perception of, and response to, social injustice, with reward-related regions preferentially involved in punishment compared with compensation. Developing a computational model of punishment allowed for disentangling the neural mechanisms and psychological motives underlying decisions of whether to punish and, subsequently, of how severely to punish. Results show that the neural mechanisms underlying punishment differ depending on whether one is directly affected by the injustice, or whether one is a third-party observer of a violation occurring to another. Specifically, the anterior insula was involved in decisions to punish following harm, whereas, in third-party scenarios, we found amygdala activity associated with punishment severity. Additionally, we used a pharmacological intervention using oxytocin, and found that oxytocin influenced participants' fairness expectations, and in particular enhanced the frequency of low punishments. Together, these results not only provide more insight into the fundamental brain mechanisms underlying punishment and compensation, but also illustrate the importance of taking an explorative, multimethod approach when unraveling the complex components of everyday decision-making.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The perception of injustice is a fundamental precursor to many disagreements, from small struggles at the dinner table to wasteful conflict between cultures and countries. Despite its clear importance, relatively little is known about how the brain processes these violations. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, we combine methods from neuroscience, psychology, and economics to explore the neurobiological mechanisms involved in both the perception of injustice as well as the punishment and compensation decisions that follow. Using a novel behavioral paradigm, we identified specific brain networks, developed a computational model of punishment, and found that administrating the neuropeptide oxytocin increases the administration of low punishments of norm violations in particular. Results provide valuable insights into the fundamental neurobiological mechanisms underlying social injustice.

EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES

Effective teaching is one of the most challenging job of higher education. It improves the quality of higher education. Improving the present of students, providing them new knowledge and make them ready for a bright future must be the priority of effective teaching. The central aim of effective teaching is to help students learn more effectively and efficiently that they could on their own. It motivates and engages all students in learning. Effective teacher believe every student is capable of achieving success in studies and find ways of making every student successful. A good teacher helps the students to learn. Teacher’s beliefs, attitudes and educational philosophy influence the instructional approach, classroom climate and relationship with students. The role of a teacher has been changed from a traditional information provider through lecture to a more modernized and multiple responsibility approach in the new technological world. The knowledge of teaching skills and their proper implementation in a classroom, matters a lot. Effective teaching includes fair expectations, positive attitude and patience with students along with assessment on a regular basis. One of the most challenging tasks of effective teaching is to create a learning environment, which adequately fulfill the needs of all students. A teacher should know about his students, their abilities, understanding level, interests, attention spans and prior knowledge while delivering a lecture in a classroom. Effective teaching does not means only increase in the number of graduates, it must also include improvement in the judgment power of students, human relation skills, problem solving aspect in real life, moral values and a higher confidence level. Effective teaching involves quantitative as well as qualitative teaching which improves the quality of human resource needed for economic growth of a country.

The David Effect and ISDS

The legitimacy of investor-state dispute settlement or ‘ISDS’ is fiercely contested. Chiefly, scholars argue this arbitration mechanism empowers investors from developed states over governments of developing host states. In response, investors (mostly) from developed states argue that without adequate protections, including investor-state arbitration, they would be unable to prevent and resist opportunistic actions like expropriations by developing host states with weak rule of law and institutions. In the resulting setting, developing states facing claims by investors seem to have limited ability to improve their standing in litigation. Based on an experiment conducted on 266 arbitrators, we argue that one potential avenue is for developing host states to exploit their ‘underdog’ status. Our results show that arbitrators may be prone to the ‘David Effect’ — a bias to favor the perceived weaker party in the arbitration. Surveyed arbitrators were more likely to award low income respondent states reimbursement of their legal costs compared to middle income states. Likewise, investors from less developed economies were also more likely to have their costs reimbursed when they win compared to investors from wealthy economies. Our study suggests that the legitimacy of legal regimes depends, in the minds of decision-makers, on a minimum expectation of fairness. This hints at the importance of arbitrators’ beliefs about the distribution of power among litigants in explaining the functioning of the investor-state arbitration system.

Expectations of Fairness and Trust Co-Evolve in Environments of Partial Information

When playing one-shot economic games, individuals often blindly trust others, accepting partnerships without any information regarding the trustworthiness of their partner. Consequently, they risk deleterious pacts. Oddly, when individuals do have information about another, they reject partnerships that are not fair, despite the fact that such offers are profitable—individuals costly punish. Why would one reject profitable partnerships on the one hand, but risk unknown offers on the other? Significant research has gone into explaining the contexts where blind trust or costly punishment provides an evolutionary advantage; however, both behaviours are rarely considered in tandem. Here we demonstrate that both behaviours can simultaneously be revenue maximizing. Further, given the plausible condition of partially obscured information and partner choice, trust mediates the generation of costly punishment. This result is important because it demonstrates that the evolutionary viability of trust, fairness, and costly punishment may be linked. The adaptive nature of fairness expectations can best be explained in concert with trust.

Obama’s Clemency Legacy

Review Article| June 01 2017 Obama’s Clemency Legacy: An Assessment Margaret Colgate Love Margaret Colgate Love Law Office of Margaret Love, Washington, D.C.U.S. Pardon Attorney, 1990 to 1997 Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Federal Sentencing Reporter (2017) 29 (5): 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2017.29.5.271 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Margaret Colgate Love; Obama’s Clemency Legacy: An Assessment. Federal Sentencing Reporter 1 June 2017; 29 (5): 271–277. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2017.29.5.271 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentFederal Sentencing Reporter Search This content is only available via PDF. © 2017 Vera Institute of Justice2017 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Hospira UK Ltd v Cubist Pharmaceuticals LLC

H1 Patent – European patent – Revocation – Priority – Antibiotics – Swiss form claims – Dosage regimens – Selection from identified range – Purification processes – Skilled team – Common general knowledge – Anticipation – Obviousness – Clinical trials – Fair expectation of success – Added matter – Insufficiency – Enablement – Clarity of claim

Exploring the effect of unfair work contexts on the development of fairness beliefs

This paper examines what happens when individuals who perceive a fair situation discover that the situation is in fact, unfair. In a previous study, women who sued their universities discussed their initial expectations that the university would treat them fairly despite several studies that clearly indicated discrimination at universities is still a problem (Goltz, 2005a). Thus, using interview excerpts from this past study, the current paper explores how these women's expectations of fairness may have been formed, as well as how they changed after a discriminatory experience. Results suggest that the women's expectations of fairness arose in part from three values emerging during childhood: hard work, education, and self-sufficiency. In addition, the interviews indicated the women moved from stage 5 of Kohlberg's model of moral development, where the belief is that justice can be negotiated in accepted social systems, to a belief that this may not always the case, but if enough people continue to pursue justice through accepted means, then the systems will eventually change. Implications of these results for research into models of moral development, psychological contracts, and organizational justice are discussed.

Developmental Differences in Infants' Fairness Expectations From 6 to 15Months of Age.

The present research investigated the developmental trajectory of infants' fairness expectations from 6 to 15months of age (N=150). Findings revealed a developmental transition in infants' fairness expectations between 6 and 12months, as indicated by enhanced visual attention to unfair outcomes of resource distribution events (a 3:1 distribution) relative to fair outcomes (a 2:2 distribution). The onset of naturalistic sharing behavior predicted infants' fairness expectations at transitional ages. Beyond this period of developmental transition, the presence of siblings and infants' prompted giving behavior predicted individual differences in infants' fairness concerns. These results provide evidence for the role of experience in the acquisition of fairness expectations and reveal early individual differences in such expectations.

The Effect of Power Sources Used by Lecturers in Class Management on The Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Fairness Regarding Their Learning Environment

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of the power sources used by lecturers in class management on pre-service teachers’ perceptions of fairness regarding their learning environment. The sample of the study, which was designed in the correlational survey model, consists of 455 pre-service teachers studying at Mugla Sitki Kocman University. The data were collected through the application of the ‘Fair Learning Environment Scale’ and the ‘Lecturers’ Power Sources Scale’. In the analysis of the data, descriptive statistics, t -test, ANOVA and multiple regression analysis was used. Based on the findings, it was seen that pre-service teachers perceive their learning environment as a medium level of fair in general and they think the lecturers use legitimate power the most. Pre-service teachers’ opinions regarding their fair learning environments and the power sources used by their lecturers do not significantly differ according to gender variable but they do differ according to class and department variables. The power sources used by lecturers explain 57% of the total variance of the respectful partnership dimension and 46% of the total variance of the systemic fairness dimension of the fair learning environment. The use of personal power and information power by the lecturers leads to an increase in pre-service teachers’ perceptions of fairness and the use of coercive power leads their fairness expectations to decrease.