Facial Norms Research Articles

Facial growth and development trajectories based on three-dimensional images: geometric morphometrics with a deformation perspective.

Developmental changes of facial shape are commonly investigated through geometric morphometrics. A limitation with this approach is the inability to investigate patterns of morphological changes at local scale. This could be addressed through quantifying the deformation required to deform one shape to another. This study aimed to investigate changes in mean, rate and variance of facial shape at local scale using geometric morphometrics through deformation perspective. A total of 2112 Europeans 3 to 40 years old from the three-dimensional Facial Norms project were included. Shape and rate trajectories from partial least-squares regressions revealed that the developmentally protrusive nasal bridge was due to local expansion in surrounding tissues as opposed to shape changes in nasal bridge per se. Local expansion of the supraorbital region, in particular the medial part in males, resulted in the sloping forehead and deep-situated eyes with development. Facial shape variation increased nonlinearly with age (p < 0.05), with features having larger rate of change becoming more developmentally diversified. In summary, our deformation perspective facilitates unravelling morphogenetic processes underlying shape changes. Our extended analytical scope inspires novel measures worthy of consideration while establishing facial growth charts. The analytical framework in this study is broadly applicable for analysis of shape changes in general.

Assessment of Smile Dimensions in an Adult Moroccan Population

Background: This study aimed to assess the smile dimensions according to gender, age, and the perception of the overall quality and attractiveness of the smile. Methods: A cross-sectional study including 204 Moroccan men and women distributed over five age categories was conducted between January and September 2021. Gender, age, satisfaction and auto-evaluation of the smile were collected using questionnaire. Then, two images of each participant, one at rest and one upon the largest smile were taken. The following distances were measured on the images: length of the lips and width of the mouth at rest and upon smile, gingival and maxillary central incisor displayed upon smile. Results: Dimensions were significantly more important in men. Women displayed significantly more gingiva. With age, the length of the upper lip at rest increased significantly until the age of 50 and the width of the mouth upon smile continued increasing significantly. 74% of the participants were satisfied with their smile. Participants' satisfaction with their smile was not associated with the degree of gingival display. Conclusion: Males have more important dimensions of the lips and the mouth. Females display more gum than males. Age influences the upper lip length at rest which increases up to the age of 50, and the mouth width upon smile which continues to increase with age. Practical Implications: The definition of specific facial norms for each ethnic group considering gender and age groups is essential to establish diagnoses and orthodontic treatment plans.

Technological scouting of bi-material face masks: simulation of adherence using 3D Facial Norms

During the COVID-19 pandemic started in March 2020, the need for personal protective equipment rapidly grew as it became mandatory. The availability of a set of faces can be of great utility in designing a face mask with proper adherence and comfortability in wearing and breathing. A 3D geometry of a face with user-defined anthropometric measures was generated with Blender, a powerful development tool for creating 3D images. Using 3D Facial Norms, a free online database, it was possible to compute the mean anthropometric measures for the age groups of 17-20, 20-30, and 30-40 years old and then generate the respective faces for both genders. The adherence of an innovative face mask was then simulated with the reverse engineering software considering both the face mask and the faces rigid.

Refining Orthognathic Surgery Results by Synchronous Cheek Fat Compartment Augmentation with Fat Grafting in Adult Females with Class III Skeletal Profiles.

Patients with maxillomandibular disharmony may present with a flat to concave midface. The effects of orthognathic surgery concomitant with midface fat grafting on facial appearance and midface volumetric and positional change have not formally been assessed to date. The authors' approach for synchronous orthognathic surgery and fat grafting is described and evaluated. Adult female patients (n = 20) who underwent synchronous two-jaw orthognathic surgery and cheek-specific fat grafting (1.9 ± 0.6 cm3 per side) for correction of skeletal class III deformity and anteromedial cheek deficiency were prospectively included. Preoperative and postoperative photographs were appraised by 42 blinded raters using facial appearance scales for beauty, attractiveness, and pleasantness parameters. The three-dimensional midface soft-tissue volume change and postoperative cheek mass position were computed. Facial imaging data from gender-, ethnic-, and facial pattern-matched adult patients (n = 20) who underwent isolated two-jaw orthognathic surgery (n = 20) were included for comparison. The three-dimensional facial norms database-derived cheek mass position information (2.19 ± 1.31mm) was also adopted for analysis. Patients treated with the synchronous procedure had significantly (p < 0.001) increased facial appearance-related perception change for beauty (2.9 ± 1.6), attractiveness (2.8 ± 1.8), and pleasantness (3.0 ± 1.5) parameters, three-dimensional midface volume change (1.8 ± 0.5 cm3), and postoperative cheek mass position (2.16 ± 0.47 mm) in comparison with those treated with the isolated procedure (2.0 ± 1.5, 1.9 ± 1.6, 2.3 ± 1.6, 0.6 ± 0.2 cm3, and 1.84 ± 0.43 mm, respectively). Healthy female individuals had similar and larger cheek mass position than patients treated with synchronous (p > 0.05) and isolated (p < 0.001) procedures, respectively. Synchronous orthognathic surgery and check-specific fat grafting resulted in superior enhancement of facial appearance and midface volume and position compared with isolated orthognathic surgery. Therapeutic, III.

From “pretty to pretty powerful”: Facial beauty’s performative power (WITHDRAWN)

The face is a significant locus of power upon which judgements concerning a person’s status, worth and attractiveness are made. This study contributes to knowledge of facial norms’ shifting performative power in daily organizing, theorizing facial beauty as a communicatively constituted authoritative text. We achieve this through blending Butlerian and communication as constitutive of organization theorizing. This allows us to enrich understandings of power and performativity’s necessarily entangled and co-constitutive unfolding, as we trace how a normative understanding of facial beauty becomes more and/or less performatively powerful through embodied-textual processes. Our theorizing is generated from an ethnography of a UK cosmetics firm and demonstrates how facial beauty functions as a (figurative) authoritative text that corporealizes, subjectivizes, and is resisted by makeup artists within a confluence of (concrete) text and conversation. We show how through communicative, citational and embodied processes of corporealization, regulation and subjection, everyday performances like makeup applications become performatively powerful on the ground level of interaction. Further, returning authoritative texts to their original figurative formulation uncovers something of how their transformative power shapes organizing’s ongoing accomplishment.

From ‘Pretty’ to ‘Pretty Powerful’: The communicatively constituted power of facial beauty’s performativity

The face is a significant locus of power upon which judgements concerning a person’s status, worth and attractiveness are made. This study contributes to knowledge of facial norms’ shifting performative power in daily organizing, theorizing facial beauty as a communicatively constituted authoritative text. We achieve this through blending Butlerian and communication as constitutive of organization (CCO) theorizing. This allows us to enrich understandings of power and performativity’s necessarily entangled and co-constitutive unfolding, as we trace how a normative understanding of facial beauty becomes more and/or less performatively powerful through embodied-textual processes. Our theorizing is generated from an ethnography of a UK cosmetics firm and demonstrates how facial beauty functions as a (figurative) authoritative text that corporealizes, subjectivizes and is resisted by makeup artists within a confluence of (concrete) text and conversation. We show how through communicative, citational and embodied processes of corporealization, regulation and subjection, everyday performances like makeup applications become performatively powerful on the ground level of interaction. Further, returning authoritative texts to their original figurative formulation uncovers something of how their transformative power shapes organizing’s ongoing accomplishment.

Face anthropometry of Turkish population

Aim: Analysis of facial anthropometry of modern Turkish population is important for cosmetic or reconstructive facial surgeries. In this study, it is aimed to make multiple measurements of the face in the Turkish population.Materials and Methods: In this study, the measurements were performed on 93 Turkish adult individuals (54 males, 39 females). 13 direct facial anthropometric measurements were performed. A total set of anthropometric data was collected for each gender.Results: Statistically significant differences were found between Turkish male and Turkish female individuals. All values except forehead height were found to be higher in males than females. Ear length was found to be higher than nose length in both males and females. Mouth width value was found to be greater than left eye fissure length and nose width values in both genders.Conclusion: In the study, statistically significant differences were found in head and face regions between both genders when facial norms were applied for Turkish adults.

Unilateral sagittal split osteotomy: effect on mandibular symmetry in the treatment of class III with laterognathia

The bilateral sagittal split osteotomy is considered the standard surgery to correct facial asymmetries. More recently, unilateral sagittal split osteotomy (USSO) was used to treat such malocclusions.AimTo assess facial symmetry following USSO in the treatment of class III laterognathia.MethodsFrontal facial photographs of four groups of patients were assessed: (1) pre-surgical group (n = 30) with skeletal asymmetry, (2) postsurgical group assessing patients of the first group 2 years after USSO, (3) control group (n = 30) of patients judged to have harmonious facial norms, and (4) mirrored group (n = 30) in which the control photographs were altered by duplicating the right half side of the face to replace the left half, thus creating perfectly symmetrical faces. All 120 photographs were distributed to 40 expert orthodontists to evaluate and score facial symmetry using the visual analog scale. Skin sensitivity and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders were also assessed clinically pre and postsurgically.ResultsStatistically significant differences were observed between the pre-surgical group and each of the postsurgical and control groups (p < 0.001). The control and postsurgical groups received similar scores of symmetry (p = 0.774). The mirrored group received statistically significantly higher symmetry scores than either of the control or the postsurgical groups (p < 0.001). A reduction in TMJ disorders was noted after USSO and all patients reported normal skin sensation 2 years post-surgery.ConclusionWhen indicated, USSO is a dependable and practical surgical approach to correct facial asymmetries associated with class III malocclusion.

Facial Asymmetry Increases as a Function of Age

Humans, like all bilaterian organisms, follow a symmetric body plan during growth and development. Deviations from symmetry during growth arise as a function of developmental instability caused by biological and environmental stressors such as poor diet and illness. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) refers to random left/right asymmetries and is considered a quantifiable proxy for developmental stress. This study will investigate the patterning of facial asymmetry in a large population to highlight aspects of facial asymmetry within and between age groups. We also quantify FA across the sample to test the hypothesis that facial asymmetry increases as a function of age.To determine whether levels of facial asymmetry vary with age, a cross‐sectional sample of n=900 facial scans representing four age groups (child: 3–10 y/o, adolescent: 11–18 y/o, young adult: 19–27 y/o, and older adult: 28–40 y/o) from the University of Pittsburgh Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics 3D Facial Norms study were analyzed. 34 landmarks were captured along facial structures including the eyes, nose, mouth, and chin, superimposed using Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA), and analyzed using geometric morphometrics (GM) in MorphoJ. Following GPA, the asymmetric component of facial shape was examined using both Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA) to evaluate patterns of overall facial asymmetry and whether or not different facial asymmetry patterns exist between age groups. Finally, a Procrustes ANOVA was employed to calculate a fluctuating asymmetry (FA) score for each individual and scores were regressed against age to test whether facial asymmetry increases with age.PCA results identified 43 principal components (PCs), of which the first three components accounted for nearly 42% of the overall facial asymmetric shape variation. PC1 confirmed that 19.7% of the asymmetries occurred in eye position, accounting for the largest aspect of facial asymmetry in the combined sample. PC2 and PC3, accounting for 12.8% and 9.4% of the asymmetric shape variation respectively, occurred mostly in the lower face and jaw line. Results from CVA found significant differences (p&lt;0.02) in facial asymmetry between the age groups. CV1, accounting for 84% of the variation between groups identified asymmetries predominantly in the eyes and nose. CV2 (11.7% variation) demonstrated asymmetries of chin and lower face while CV3 (4.3%) indicated variations in asymmetry of the jaw line. Lastly, results from the Procrustes ANOVA confirmed a significant positive relationship between age and fluctuating asymmetry (p=0.0002, r2=0.014).This study identifies key aspects of facial asymmetry that exist between younger and older age groups, particularly increased asymmetries in the lower face of the adult groups compared to the younger age groups. Additionally, fluctuating asymmetry does increase slightly as a function of age, confirming our hypothesis. Future research will focus on specific factors that relate to these facial asymmetries, such as poor diet, using both cross‐sectional and longitudinal populations.Support or Funding InformationR01‐DE016148

Does Piezosurgery Decrease Patient Morbidity in Surgically Assisted Rapid Palatal Expansion Compared With Saw and Burrs?

The present study compared the postoperative pain, edema, patient satisfaction, and operating time with the use of piezosurgery, a reciprocal microsaw, and conventional burrs in the surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion (SARPE) technique for the correction of transversal maxillary deficiency. The results of the present study may help clinicians minimize the postoperative complaints of patients after SARPE. The present randomized single-blind study included patients who had undergone SARPE with piezosurgery, a reciprocating microsaw, or conventional burrs. To determine the facial norms and postoperative facial edema, 4 anatomic distances were measured on the patients' face using the modified flexible ruler method. The mean facial edema score was determined to evaluate and compare the overall edema among the groups. Two separate visual analog scales were used to assess patients' postoperative pain and intraoperative satisfaction. The duration of the osteotomies was recorded. Intragroup data were statistically analyzed via a t test, and intergroup data were analyzed via a nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test. Spearman's correlation was used to evaluate the relationships among the variables. For the 80 patients, edema (second day: piezosurgery, 0.53±0.34; microsaw, 0.61±0.30; burrs, 0.94±0.33; P<.001) and pain (piezosurgery, 2.3±0.3; microsaw, 3.6±0.4; burrs, 3.9±0.6; P<.001) were greater for conventional burrs and microsaws, with statistically significant differences. Patient satisfaction (piezosurgery, 8.3±0.3; microsaw, 5.5±0.5; burrs, 5.1±0.9; P<.001) was greater with piezosurgery. However, in the piezosurgery group, the duration of osteotomies was 50% greater (piezosurgery, 16.10±3.30; microsaw, 11.05±2.09; burrs, 11.2±2.14; P<.001). The results from the present study have shown that piezosurgery is an effective method for minimizing facial edema and patient morbidity and increasing patient satisfaction during SARPE. Moreover, the use of conventional burrs and microsaws prolonged the duration of facial edema.

Do Unaffected Parents of Children with Orofacial Clefts have Decreased Facial Integration Compared to Controls?

Orofacial clefts are the most common congenital craniofacial anomaly affecting humans. Non‐syndromic clefts may result from decreased integration of the palate during fetal facial growth. This study will investigate whether this pattern is detectable in individuals who do not have a cleft, but do have a child with an orofacial cleft (and therefore carry genetic risk factors for clefting). In order to examine this, we hypothesize that 1) facial shape differences exist between unaffected parents of children with clefts (cases) compared to adults with no history of clefting (controls), and 2) cases will have lower facial integration values compared to controls.For this study, 3D facial scans were obtained from the University of Pittsburgh Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics (CCDG). 34 landmarks were placed on n=230 case faces of unaffected parents from the Pitt Orofacial Cleft Study and n=490 control faces from the Pitt 3D Facial Norms Study. Landmarks were aligned using Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) and geometric morphometrics were used for quantifying facial phenotypes. Facial shape differences as a function of age were removed prior to all analyses using linear regression. Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA) was employed to examine shape differences in three different subsets of facial landmarks: a midfacial nose and mouth dataset, a lower facial mouth and jaw dataset and a third dataset consisting of the nose and jaw. Two Block Partial Least Squares analysis (2B PLS) was used to measure the strength of integration by comparing RV coefficients between the case and control populations.Results from the CVA identify significant differences in facial morphology, including jaw width, chin projection, nasal height and mouth width, between cases and controls across all datasets (nose/mouth midfacial set p&lt;0.001, mouth/jaw lower facial set p&lt;0.001, and nose/jaw dataset p=0.028). 2B PLS results, however, showed overall equivalent or higher integration levels in case faces compared to the controls. When comparing levels of integration within the midface (nose and mouth dataset), case samples demonstrate significant (p&lt;0.001) overall higher integration levels (RV=0.352) compared to control samples (RV=0.301). This pattern is also seen within the nose and jaw dataset, with cases (RV=0.614) showing increased integration compared to controls (RV=0.554). Interestingly, integration levels within the lower facial mouth and jaw dataset were nearly identical in both case samples (RV=0.444) and controls (RV=0.447).While facial shape differences exist between unaffected cleft relatives and controls with no family history of clefting, integration values were actually higher in case samples compared to control samples. This indicates that integration in facial soft tissue structures may not serve as a good indicator of cleft risk. Future studies will examine skeletal structures (such as the maxilla and mandible) to test if differences in integration are quantifiable in the facial skeleton only.Support or Funding InformationNIDCR: R01‐DE016148, U01‐DE020078This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Quantitative Anthropometric Measures of Facial Appearance of Healthy Hispanic/Latino White Children: Establishing Reference Data for Care of Cleft Lip With or Without Cleft Palate

Cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL ± P) is one of the most common congenital facial deformities worldwide. To minimize negative social consequences of CL ± P, reconstructive surgery is conducted to modify the face to a more normal appearance. Each race/ethnic group requires its own facial norm data, yet there are no existing facial norm data for Hispanic/Latino White children. The objective of this paper is to identify measures of facial appearance relevant for planning reconstructive surgery for CL ± P of Hispanic/Latino White children. Quantitative analysis was conducted on 3D facial images of 82 (41 girls, 41 boys) healthy Hispanic/Latino White children whose ages ranged from 7 to 12 years. Twenty-eight facial anthropometric features related to CL ± P (mainly in the nasal and mouth area) were measured from 3D facial images. In addition, facial aesthetic ratings were obtained from 16 non-clinical observers for the same 3D facial images using a 7-point Likert scale. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to find features that were correlated with the panel ratings of observers. Boys with a longer face and nose, or thicker upper and lower lips are considered more attractive than others while girls with a less curved middle face contour are considered more attractive than others. Associated facial landmarks for these features are primary focus areas for reconstructive surgery for CL ± P. This study identified anthropometric measures of facial features of Hispanic/Latino White children that are pertinent to CL ± P and which correlate with the panel attractiveness ratings.

The 3D Facial Norms Database: Part 1. A Web-Based Craniofacial Anthropometric and Image Repository for the Clinical and Research Community.

With the current widespread use of three-dimensional (3D) facial surface imaging in clinical and research environments, there is a growing demand for high-quality craniofacial norms based on 3D imaging technology. The principal goal of the 3D Facial Norms (3DFN) project was to create an interactive, Web-based repository of 3D facial images and measurements. Unlike other repositories, users can gain access to both summary-level statistics and individual-level data, including 3D facial landmark coordinates, 3D-derived anthropometric measurements, 3D facial surface images, and genotypes from every individual in the dataset. The 3DFN database currently consists of 2454 male and female participants ranging in age from 3 to 40 years. The subjects were recruited at four US sites and screened for a history of craniofacial conditions. The goal of this article is to introduce readers to the 3DFN repository by providing a general overview of the project, explaining the rationale behind the creation of the database, and describing the methods used to collect the data. Sex- and age-specific summary statistics (means and standard deviations) and growth curves for every anthropometric measurement in the 3DFN dataset are provided as a supplement available online. These summary statistics and growth curves can aid clinicians in the assessment of craniofacial dysmorphology.

Three-dimensional Analysis of Normal Facial Morphologies of Asians and Whites: A Novel Method of Quantitative Analysis.

Background:The purpose of this study is to compare 3-dimensional facial averages of Asians (Koreans and Chinese) and Houstonian white faces using a (3-dimensional) surface imaging system.Methods:Three-dimensional images of Korean adults (Seoul, Korea) with class I malocclusion captured using the 3dMDface. The images of 138 Koreans were processed to generate average male and female facial shells using Rapidform 2006 plus pack 2 software and then superimposed and compared with the average shells of Chinese adults (Xi’ An, China) and white adults (Houston, Tex.).Results:The average Korean male and female faces were wider with prominent malar and zygomatic areas when compared with the white faces. The average white male and female faces showed more protrusion in the glabella, nasion, rhinion, and the soft-tissue pogonion than the Korean faces. The average Korean male face was retrusive at masseteric region while having more prominent lips, nasal tip, and supraglabella than the Chinese counterpart. The average Korean female face was narrower than the average Chinese female face, but there was more protrusion in the periorbital, nasal tip, and malar region seen in the Korean female face.Conclusions:Although the average faces of Chinese and Korean populations in this study showed remarkable similarities, there were distinct differences seen in the facial morphology of the 2 Asian groups. Three-dimensional imaging can be effectively used to establish population facial norms and to quantify the variations seen between different ethnicities. This information may be used in the clinical environment for plastic, oral, and maxillofacial surgery and orthodontics.

Long-Term Exposure to American and European Movies and Television Series Facilitates Caucasian Face Perception in Young Chinese Watchers.

Most young Chinese people now learn about Caucasian individuals via media, especially American and European movies and television series (AEMT). The current study aimed to explore whether long-term exposure to AEMT facilitates Caucasian face perception in young Chinese watchers. Before the experiment, we created Chinese, Caucasian, and generic average faces (generic average face was created from both Chinese and Caucasian faces) and tested participants' ability to identify them. In the experiment, we asked AEMT watchers and Chinese movie and television series (CMT) watchers to complete a facial norm detection task. This task was developed recently to detect norms used in facial perception. The results indicated that AEMT watchers coded Caucasian faces relative to a Caucasian face norm better than they did to a generic face norm, whereas no such difference was found among CMT watchers. All watchers coded Chinese faces by referencing a Chinese norm better than they did relative to a generic norm. The results suggested that long-term exposure to AEMT has the same effect as daily other-race face contact in shaping facial perception.

Using the 3D Facial Norms Database to investigate craniofacial sexual dimorphism in healthy children, adolescents, and adults.

BackgroundAlthough craniofacial sex differences have been extensively studied in humans, relatively little is known about when various dimorphic features manifest during postnatal life. Using cross-sectional data derived from the 3D Facial Norms data repository, we tested for sexual dimorphism of craniofacial soft-tissue morphology at different ages.MethodsOne thousand five hundred fifty-five individuals, pre-screened for craniofacial conditions, between 3 and 25 years of age were placed in to one of six age-defined categories: early childhood, late childhood, puberty, adolescence, young adult, and adult. At each age group, sex differences were tested by ANCOVA for 29 traditional soft-tissue anthropometric measurements collected from 3D facial scans. Additionally, sex differences in shape were tested using a geometric morphometric analysis of 24 3D facial landmarks.ResultsSignificant (p < 0.05) sex differences were observed in every age group for measurements covering multiple aspects of the craniofacial complex. The magnitude of the dimorphism generally increased with age, with large spikes in the nasal, cranial, and facial measurements observed after puberty. Significant facial shape differences (p < 0.05) were also seen at each age, with some dimorphic features already present in young children (eye fissure inclination) and others emerging only after puberty (mandibular position).ConclusionsSeveral craniofacial soft-tissue sex differences were already present in the youngest age group studied, indicating that these differences emerged prior to 3 years of age. The results paint a complex and heterogeneous picture, with different groups of traits exhibiting distinct patterns of dimorphism during ontogeny. The definitive adult male and female facial shape was present following puberty, but arose from numerous distinct changes taking place at earlier stages.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13293-016-0076-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Establishment of Aesthetic Soft Tissue Norms for Southern India Population: A Photogrammetric Study

Objective: To establish soft tissue facial profile norms for Coastal Andhra population by means of angular measurements and toevaluate the difference between male &amp; female groups.Materials &amp; Method: 90 individuals (45 males, 45 females) of age group 18-25 years of native coastal Andhra Pradesh, withacceptable pleasing profile, normal Class I occlusion having ideal anterior bite were selected for the study. Standard profilephotographs were taken and angular photogrammetric analysis was carried out through AutoCAD software.Result: There were significant difference in Naso-frontal angle (G–N–Nd; males: 130.64 ± 6.27o; females: 140.33o ± 6.85o; P = 0.000)and Mento-labial angle (Li–Sm–Pg: females: 127.38o ± 5.35o; males: 124.82o ± 6.57o; P = 0.043).Conclusion: The males of Coastal Andhra Pradesh have mild convex profile and prominent nose whereas females have mildconvex profile due to recessive chin. A higher upper lip prominence was seen in males.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ojn.v4i1.11308 Orthodontic Journal of Nepal Vol.4(1) 2014; 29-35

Opposite effects on facial morphology due to gene dosage sensitivity.

Sequencing technology is increasingly demonstrating the impact of genomic copy number variation (CNV) on phenotypes. Opposing variation in growth, head size, cognition and behaviour is known to result from deletions and reciprocal duplications of some genomic regions. We propose normative inversion of face shape, opposing difference from a matched norm, as a basis for investigating the effects of gene dosage on craniofacial development. We use dense surface modelling techniques to match any face (or part of a face) to a facial norm of unaffected individuals of matched age, sex and ethnicity and then we reverse the individual’s face shape differences from the matched norm to produce the normative inversion. We demonstrate for five genomic regions, 4p16.3, 7q11.23, 11p15, 16p13.3 and 17p11.2, that such inversion for individuals with a duplication or (epi)-mutation produces facial forms remarkably similar to those associated with a deletion or opposite (epi-)mutation of the same region, and vice versa. The ability to visualise and quantify face shape effects of gene dosage is of major benefit for determining whether a CNV is the cause of the phenotype of an individual and for predicting reciprocal consequences. It enables face shape to be used as a relatively simple and inexpensive functional analysis of the gene(s) involved.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00439-014-1455-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Photometric Facial Analysis of Soft Tissue Profile of Okrika Adults

Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the facial norms of the Okrika people by photometric analysis. Study Design: This study is designed to evaluate facial aesthetics and provide photogrammetric standards for male and female Okrika adults. Place and Duration ofStudy:The population of study was drawn from natives, who reside within the community centers of Okrika to

Considerations to Planning Orthognathic Surgery in Different Regions of Saudi and the Middle East

<b>Objectives:</b> to properly plan orthongathic surgery and the fine beauty details in it, understanding different ethnic facial norms is necessary. In Saudi, investigating the existence of any facial variation has not been studied before, and hence we are investigating the existence of any variation of soft tissue profile (STP) among Saudi patients in the Southern region (SSA) when compared to the middle region of Saudi (MSA) that require considerations when planning facial surgeries. <b>Material and methods:</b> A retrospective chart review from August 2010 to June 2012 of Patients with class I skeletal relation, no history of orthognathic facial deformity, syndromes nor cleft lip and palate were included in the study. 93 patients with an age ranged from 15-33 years old were compared to a similar group in the MSA. Clinical pictures and lateral cephalometric radiographs superimpositions were used to examine the data and tabulate the results. <b>Results:</b> it has been shown that although similarities exist between the STP of patients in the SSA and MSA, some characters were found significantly different in SSA group such as females showing more microgenic tendency, more acute nasolabial angle and larger interlabial gap than MSA females. While SSA males on as well showed more microgenia and longer face tendency than MSA males. <b>Conclusion: </b>When planning orthognathic surgery for SSA patients, careful consideration for lower facial third character is necessary as tendency toward microgenia in the patient population sounds like a common feature in males and females.