Facial Measurements Research Articles

Using objective measures to examine the effect of suspect-filler similarity on eyewitness identification performance - Final Registered Report

When selecting fillers to include in a police lineup, one must consider the level of similarity between the suspect and potential fillers. In order to reduce misidentifications, an innocent suspect should not stand out. Therefore, it is important that the fillers share some degree of similarity. Importantly, increasing suspect–filler similarity too much will render the task too difficult reducing correct identifications of a guilty suspect. Determining how much similarity yields optimal identification performance is the focus of the proposed study. Extant research on lineup construction has provided somewhat mixed results. In part, this is likely due to the subjective nature of similarity, which forces researchers to define similarity in relative terms. In the current study, we manipulate suspect–filler similarity via a multidimensional scaling model constructed using objective facial measurements. In doing so, we test the “propitious heterogeneity” and the diagnostic-feature-detection hypotheses which predict an advantage of lineups with low-similarity fillers in terms of discriminability. We found that filler similarity did not affect discriminability. We discuss limitations and future directions.

Ultrasound measurements of fetal facial profile markers and their associations with congenital malformations during early pregnancy

BackgroundFetal facial profile could be measured during the early pregnancy. Its abnormalities might be associated with certain congenital malformations. We aimed to study the associations between fetal facial profile measurements with crown-rump length and congenital malformations (cleft lip and palate, micrognathia, and open spina bifida) during early pregnancy.MethodsWe performed a prospective cross-sectional study between June 2019 and April 2022. Pregnant women at a gestational age between 11–13+ 6 weeks were enrolled. Two sonographers performed fetal facial profile measurements independently. The associations between these measurements with crown-rump length and congenital malformations were evaluated.ResultsThere were 406 and 25 fetuses without or with congenital malformations, respectively. Two sonographers showed satisfactory inter- and intra-observer agreements and reproducibility. The maxillary gap was only observed in 7.6% of normal fetuses, whereas all cleft lip and palate fetuses had a maxillary gap ≥ 0.8 mm. The crown-rump length was negatively correlated with frontomaxillary facial angle, inferior facial angle, and profile line distance but positively correlated with maxilla-nasion-mandible angle, facial maxillary angle, frontal space distance, and palatine maxillary diameter. These measurements showed various significant changes with different congenital malformations.ConclusionsMeasurements of fetal facial profile in early pregnancy were feasible with satisfactory reproducibility. These measurements correlated with crown-rump length and showed significant differences with certain fetal congenital malformations.

Correlation Between Maxillary Anterior Teeth and Common Facial Measurements.

The symmetry between maxillary anterior teeth and the face holds significant importance. This study assessed and analyzed the relationship between facial parameters and anterior teeth in the maxillary arch of male and female subjects. Specifically, individual width and combined width (CW) measurements of the maxillary anterior teeth were investigated. This study involved a total of 150 dentate Yemeni subjects (74 men and 76 women), whose ages ranged from 18 years old to 30 years old. A maxillary cast was created, and two digital photographs of the face of each subject were taken and analyzed. Digital calipers and AutoCAD were used to gather measurement data of the dental parameters (intercanthal distance [ICD], interpupillary distance [IPD], interalar width [IAW], intercommissural width [ICW], and bizygomatic width [BZW]) and facial parameters (profile distance). Significant correlations were found for the following: IPD and width of six maxillary anterior teeth of each of the study subjects; ICD and their central incisors; and BZW and their canine width measurements. In contrast, IAW and ICW were not correlated with all tooth measurements. Linear regression findings showed that the CW measurement of the four incisors was significantly correlated with all facial parameter measurements, excluding the ICW and IAW in females and the IAW, ICW, and profile distance in males. The IPD and ICD of males and females may be used to determine their CW measurements. The BZW and IPD of males can be used to take precise anthropological measurements of the width of the central canines and incisors. Meanwhile, the IPD distance of females can be used to assess the central and lateral incisor widths.

Anthropometric analysis of Turkish fetuses’ face

Aims: This study aims at collecting data on the morphology of the face during its development in order to get detailed information on the neighboring structures and its variations using anatomical dissections and obtain normal morphometric values of the face growth and human fetuses during the 1st, 2nd and 3rd trimester.
 Methods: This study was performed on spontaneously aborted 97 fetuses (49 males, 48 females) (11 first trimester, 63 second trimester and 24 third trimester) that have no observable congenital malformations or maternal history of risky pregnancy. The fetuses were taken from a Gynecology Department of a School of Medicine and a Maternity Hospital in Konya. Thirteen direct facial anthropometric measurements were performed on 97 volunteers. The data obtained were compared with the data of previous studies.
 Results: Means and standard deviations of the parameters in regard to gestational weeks and trimesters were calculated. A significant correlation was observed between all parameters and gestational age (p

Comparison of angular measurements in cephalometrics and photographs.

Abstract:
 Introduction: The evaluation of the facial profile is an important factor in any current orthodontic diagnosis and accurate treatment planning is dependent on it.
 Aims and Objectives: The aim and objective of the study is to find out differences in angular measurements between photographic and cephalometric measurements whether photographic measurements can be used in place of cephalometric measurements.
 Material & Methods: The study comprised 100 volunteers (50 males and 50 females) ranging in age from 12 to 16 years. The respondents were chosen at random throughout the sampling process. Cephalometric and photographic profile analysis was used, with angular measurements based on standard cephalometric and photographic records taken in natural head position in lateral view. Lateral cephalogram was used for cephalometric analysis and photograph taken in lateral view was used for evaluation. The study included four factors in total.
 Results: There was no significant difference in facial angular measurements between the cephalometric and photographic analysis.
 Conclusion: This study concluded that photographic measurements can be used in place of lateral cephalogram as there are negligible differences between them
 Keywords: Photographic analysis, Cephalometric analysis, Naso-labial angle, Naso-mental angle, Naso-frontal angle, Naso-facial angle

Comparative Evaluation of Masticatory Efficiency in Various Facial Forms of Dentate and Rehabilitated Complete Denture Patients.

To evaluate the masticatory efficiency of dentate and rehabilitated complete denture patients in various facial forms. A total of 60 subjects were selected for the study; 30 subjects belonged to the dentate group (D Group) and 30 subjects belonged to the completely edentulous group rehabilitated with conventional complete dentures (CECD Group). All patients were divided into a subgroup (brachyfacial, mesofacial, and dolichofacial facial forms) using facial index measurement and cephalometric analysis. After the subjects were divided into groups, masticatory efficiency testing was performed with spectrophotometric analysis using diluted expectorate of chewed natural beetroot test food (10, 15, and 20 strokes). The mean absorbance value was considered as the mean masticatory efficiency from which the average masticatory efficiency percentage was determined using a masticatory efficiency percentage equation and considered as the masticatory efficiency of that particular subject. Statistical analysis revealed that in the D Group, brachyfacial subjects exhibited the highest masticatory efficiency (70.9 ± 12.64%), followed by mesofacial (60.6% ± 10.66%) and dolichofacial (34.3% ± 10.81%) subjects. In the CECD groups, the results for brachyfacial were highest (52.7% ± 8.11%), followed by the mesofacial (42.3% ± 6.52%), and dolichofacial (29.3% ± 7.76%) subjects. Along with other determinant factors, facial form plays an influential role on masticatory efficiency. Brachyfacial subjects exhibited the highest masticatory efficiency, followed by mesofacial and dolichofacial subjects in both study groups.

Comparison of Face Anthropometry and Digital 2D-Face Photogrammetry as Methods for Predicting Vertical Dimension of Occlusion.

To determine the values of 15 craniofacial linear distances in the Serbian ethnic group using and comparing two methods of face-anthropometric and digital 2D-face-photogrammetric measurement and to determine the correlations between distances that can be predictive or can serve as proxy for occlusal vertical dimension (OVD). A total of 90 adults were selected. Facial distance as a tool to measure the OVD was measured as Sn-Gn (the distance between the septum of the nose [Sn] and the tip of the chin [Gn]). Face-anthropometric measurements were made with a Boley gauge (Buffalo Dental). Digital 2D-photogrammetric facial measurements were performed using the computer program Dr Ceph (FYI Technologies). The mean value for the distance Sn-Gn was 63.55 using face-anthropometric measurement (Sn-Gn[f]) and 63.56 using 2D-face-photogrammetic measurement (Sn-Gn[ph]) Multivariate regression analysis revealed that Sn-Gn(f) depended on ExL-ExR(f) P = .001; ZyL-ZyR(f) P = .077; N-Sn(f) P = .096; Sn-Sto(f) P = .043; and sex. Analysis also identified that Sn-Gn(ph) depended on ExL-ExR(ph) P < .001; EnL-EnR(ph) P = .029; N-Sn(ph) P = .013; Sn-Sto(ph) P = .001; and sex. A comparison of facial anthropometry and digital 2D-facial photogrammetry revealed no statistical significance differences in the values obtained and showed that facial photogrammetry could be as reliable a method as facial anthropometry.

A novel artificial intelligence model for fetal facial profile marker measurement during the first trimester

BackgroundTo study the validity of an artificial intelligence (AI) model for measuring fetal facial profile markers, and to evaluate the clinical value of the AI model for identifying fetal abnormalities during the first trimester.MethodsThis retrospective study used two-dimensional mid-sagittal fetal profile images taken during singleton pregnancies at 11–13+ 6 weeks of gestation. We measured the facial profile markers, including inferior facial angle (IFA), maxilla-nasion-mandible (MNM) angle, facial-maxillary angle (FMA), frontal space (FS) distance, and profile line (PL) distance using AI and manual measurements. Semantic segmentation and landmark localization were used to develop an AI model to measure the selected markers and evaluate the diagnostic value for fetal abnormalities. The consistency between AI and manual measurements was compared using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). The diagnostic value of facial markers measured using the AI model during fetal abnormality screening was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves.ResultsA total of 2372 normal fetuses and 37 with abnormalities were observed, including 18 with trisomy 21, 7 with trisomy 18, and 12 with CLP. Among them, 1872 normal fetuses were used for AI model training and validation, and the remaining 500 normal fetuses and all fetuses with abnormalities were used for clinical testing. The ICCs (95%CI) of the IFA, MNM angle, FMA, FS distance, and PL distance between the AI and manual measurement for the 500 normal fetuses were 0.812 (0.780–0.840), 0.760 (0.720–0.795), 0.766 (0.727-0.800), 0.807 (0.775–0.836), and 0.798 (0.764–0.828), respectively. IFA clinically significantly identified trisomy 21 and trisomy 18, with areas under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.686 (95%CI, 0.585–0.788) and 0.729 (95%CI, 0.621–0.837), respectively. FMA effectively predicted trisomy 18, with an AUC of 0.904 (95%CI, 0.842–0.966). MNM angle and FS distance exhibited good predictive value in CLP, with AUCs of 0.738 (95%CI, 0.573–0.902) and 0.677 (95%CI, 0.494–0.859), respectively.ConclusionsThe consistency of fetal facial profile marker measurements between the AI and manual measurement was good during the first trimester. The AI model is a convenient and effective tool for the early screen for fetal trisomy 21, trisomy 18, and CLP, which can be generalized to first-trimester scanning (FTS).

Anthropometric vs. Dental Variables of the Ageing Face: A Clinical Study

Background: Biological ageing and pathological changes of teeth impact the appearance and may hinder the effectiveness of facial aesthetic treatments. The present cross-sectional study in Caucasian dentate individuals aimed to measure facial features of the lower and middle parts of the face across different ages and to identify any significant impacts of age, sex and dental variables on facial aesthetics. Methods: Fifty-eight adults (ranging from 26 to 79 years of age) participated in the study. Facial measurements were collected via digital two-dimensional photography, and intraoral variables were recorded. The data were digitally analysed using ImageJ software and statistically analysed using SPSS Software. Results: The lower and middle third of the face revealed statistically significant changes across the age span tested, with the middle third presenting higher values in females and the lower appearing more prominent in males. A negative correlation with age was revealed for the distance between the pupil and the orbital point. Intraoral dental variables were also significantly related to facial measures. Conclusions: The study enriches the anthropometric data available for the Greek population, with age and sex significantly impacting facial aesthetics and oral variables. Considering such information during preoperative planning for full-arch dental restorations or facial surgery is essential.

Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Measurement Using Human Face Skin Region.

Analyse the diabetes mellitus (DM) of a person through the facial skin region using vision diabetology. Diabetes mellitus is caused by persistent high blood glucose levels and related complications, which show variation in facial skin regions due to reduced blood flow in the facial arteries. Materials and Method. In this study, 200 facial images of diabetes patients with skin conditions such as Bell's palsy, rubeosis faciei, scleroderma, and vitiligo were collected from existing face videos. Moreover, face images are collected from diabetic persons in India. Viola Jones' face-detecting algorithm extracts face skin regions from a diabetic person's face image in video frames. The affected skin area on the diabetic person's face is detected using HSV colour model segmentation. The proposed multiwavelet transform convolutional neural network (MWTCNN) extracts the features for diabetic measurement from up- and downfacial scaled images of diabetic persons. The existing deep learning models are compared with the proposed MWTCNN model, which provides the highest accuracy of 98.3%. The facial skin region-based diabetic measurement avoids pricking of the serum and is used for continuous glucose monitoring.

Two-dimensional facial measurements for anterior tooth selection in complete denture treatment

PurposeAnterior tooth selection is one of the most challenging parts in determining tooth dimensions and critical to the aesthetic aspect of the complete denture treatment. However, the methods for anterior tooth size selection using facial measurements are still controversial. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between dental measurements and facial measurements, and to establish the anterior tooth size prediction equation using facial dimensions in the Thai population for the complete denture treatment. Materials & methodsOne hundred and twenty-five Thai participants (53 men and 72 women) aged 18–35 years old with Angle class I occlusion, did not currently undergo orthodontic treatment, had normal alignment on the maxillary anterior teeth, no attrition, abrasion, proximal restoration or prosthesis were investigated. One frontal facial photograph and one dental photograph of each participant were made using an image analyzing program (ImageJ version 1.53b) to measure the six horizontal facial distances, five vertical facial distances and three dental distances as 2D facial and dental measurements. Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. ResultsThe difference of facial and dental measurements between men and women were statistically significant (P < .001). Interpupillary width, interlateral canthal width, intercommissural width and bizygomatic width were correlated to dental measurements in both sexes. Intermedial canthal width and lip thickness were correlated to dental measurements in women. Face length and lateral canthus to lower border of face were correlated to dental measurements in men. Prediction equations of each dental measurement were established using only horizontal facial dimension and using both horizontal and vertical facial dimensions. ConclusionsFacial and dental dimensions are sex-dependent. Facial measurements can be applied in a regression equation to predict dental measurements. Adding vertical dimensions of facial measurements to the prediction equations of anterior tooth size selection results in a higher R squared to 0.444. This finding can be used as a tool for anterior tooth size selection in the complete denture treatment.

Analysis of the Facial Measurements and Dental Arch Dimensions for the Construction of Dental Prostheses among Adult Yemenis.

To investigate the dental arch dimension (width, length, and height) and facial measurements including inner-canthal width (ICW), bizygomatic width (BZW), inter-alar width (IAW), and mouth width (MW), and to assess the correlation between these facial measurements and dental arch width (canine width [CW], inter-first premolar width [I1PW], and inter-first molar width [I1MW]), to establish a preliminary reference for artificial teeth selection in Yemeni adult. The study included 80 individuals (40 males and 40 females) with symmetrical faces and normal class I occlusion ranging in age from 20 to 35. Maxillary and mandibular stone casts were made for each individual. The dimensions of dental casts and facial measurements, including ICW, BZW, IAW, and MW, were assessed using a digital caliper. The collected data were analyzed by using the SPSS software program. The descriptive statistics for each measurement were made. Differences between males and females were tested using an independent-sample t-test with p-values below 0.05 considered significant. Pearson correlation coefficient between facial measurements and dental arch width was also done. Most dental arch dimensions and facial measurements exhibited larger mean values in the male than in the female group, with the greatest significant difference in the maxillary dental arch width and the lowest in mandibular dental arch length. A highly significant correlation is observed between ICW and maxillary canine width (CW) (r = 0.318, p = 0.004). In contrast, no significant correlation between dental arch width and BZW, IAW, and MW is shown. Within this study's limitations, the ICW can determine the ideal dimension of the artificial teeth in the anterior maxillary arch. While the other facial parameters, including BZW, IAW, and MW, cannot be used for artificial teeth selection in Yemeni populations. The findings of this study established a reference database of facial measurements and their correlation to dental arch and teeth width in Yemeni populations. So, it can be implemented in artificial teeth and dental prostheses design and construction.

Innovation in Respirator Design, Research, &amp; Protection: A model of predictive fit for occupational safety and health.

Improving the fit of a half-mask respirator can be achieved by developing a design, fit, and sizing strategy to fit the faces of the general population or a specific group such as race, age group, or occupation. The purpose of this study was to define respirator fit based on the body product relationship and to develop a new set of facial landmarks and measurements for half-mask respirator design. 3D scan data and quantitative fit factor scores from 47 healthcare workers and 9 researchers in healthcare-related fields were utilized to investigate the relationship of new anthropometry measurements to respirator fit. A mask fit association model was validated through logistic regression. The respirator fit prediction model incorporating highly correlated face measurements opens the possibility of developing a system for judging respirator fit success and failure based on face dimensions; it can be integrated with automated measuring technologies and machine learning.

RESEARCH ON WIDE SPECTRUM FULL-COLOR NIGHT VISION ELDERLY FACIAL VIDEO HEART RATE AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT AND WARNING SYSTEM

In recent years, the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases has been growing geometrically, especially among the elderly. Real-time heart rate monitoring becomes an effective measure for preventing cardiovascular diseases. Traditional contact-based real-time heart rate measurement methods require long-term wearing of contact electrodes, which can cause inconvenience to the elderly population. In this study, a wide spectrum full color night vision elderly face video heart rate automatic measurement and early warning system was designed and developed by combining imaging photoplethysmography (IPPG), video acquisition equipment based on starlight wide spectrum camera and high-speed face recognition signal processing algorithm based on deep learning. By constructing a software and hardware platform, a comprehensive evaluation of the system’s application in elderly facial video heart rate measurement experiments was conducted.

An integrated and real-time social distancing, mask detection, and facial temperature video measurement system for pandemic monitoring

This paper presents a new Edge-AI algorithm for real-time and multi-feature (social distancing, mask detection, and facial temperature) measurement to minimize the spread of COVID-19 among individuals. COVID-19 has extenuated the need for an intelligent surveillance video system that can monitor the status of social distancing, mask detection, and measure the temperature of faces simultaneously using deep learning (DL) models. In this research, we utilized the fusion of three different YOLOv4-tiny object detectors for each task of the integrated system. This DL model is used for object detection and targeted for real-time applications. The proposed models have been trained for different data sets, which include people detection, mask detection, and facial detection for measuring the temperature, and evaluated on these existing data sets. Thermal and visible cameras have been used for the proposed approach. The thermal camera is used for social distancing and facial temperature measurement, while a visible camera is used for mask detection. The proposed method has been executed on NVIDIA platforms to assess algorithmic performance. For evaluation of the trained models, accuracy, recall, and precision have been measured. We obtained promising results for real-time detection for human recognition. Different couples of thermal and visible cameras and different NVIDIA edge platforms have been adopted to explore solutions with different trade-offs between cost and performance. The multi-feature algorithm is designed to monitor the individuals continuously in the targeted environments, thus reducing the impact of COVID-19 spread.

Multi-Level Constrained Intra and Inter Subject Feature Representation for Facial Video Based BVP Signal Measurement.

Facial video-based blood volume pulse (BVP) signal measurement holds great potential for remote health monitoring, while existing methods have issues with convolutional kernel perceptual field constraints. This article proposes an end-to-end multi-level constrained spatiotemporal representation structure for facial video-based BVP signal measurement. First, an intra- and inter-subject feature representation is proposed to strengthen the BVP-related features generation at high, semantic, and shallow levels, respectively. Second, the global-local association is presented to enhance BVP signal period pattern learning, and the global temporal features are introduced into the local spatial convolution of each frame by adaptive kernel weights. Finally, the multi-dimensional fused features are mapped to one-dimensional BVP signals by the task-oriented signal estimator. The experimental results on the publicly available MMSE-HR dataset demonstrate that the proposed structure overperforms state-of-the-art methods (e.g., AutoHR) in BVP signal measurement, with a 20% and 40% reduction in mean absolute error and root mean squared error, respectively. The proposed structure would be a powerful tool for telemedical and non-contact heart health monitoring.

An unbiased artificial referee in beauty contests based on pattern recognition and AI

Beauty contests have long been popular, but concerns about fairness and bias in judgment have emerged. To address this, integrating artificial intelligence (AI) and pattern recognition (PR) as an unbiased referee shows promise. This paper aims to assess the significance of different facial features, including eyes, nose, lips, chin, eyebrows, and jaws, as well as the role of angles and geometric facial measurements, such as distances between facial landmarks and ratios, in the context of beauty assessment. This study also employs two techniques, namely Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and stacked regression, to predict the attractiveness of faces. The experimental data set used for evaluation is the SCUT-FBP benchmark database. The obtained results, indicated by Mean Absolute Errors (MAE) and Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (PCC), demonstrate the high accuracy of our attractiveness prediction model. This research contributes to the advancement of automatic facial beauty analysis and its practical implications. Furthermore, our results surpass those published recently, further validating the effectiveness of our approach.

Are Craniofacial Asymmetries Related to Trunk Asymmetries?

The aim of this study was to investigate whether craniofacial asymmetries could be a predictor of spine asymmetries or not. Female individuals aged between 18 and 25 years participated in this cross-sectional descriptive-analytic study. The angle of trunk rotation was measured by a scoliometer in conjunction with the Adams forward-bending test. Individuals in the control group (n = 57) had spinal curvature of 0 to 3 degrees, and individuals in the study group (n = 53) had spinal curvature of between 4 and 6 degrees. Facial anthropometric measurements of individuals were evaluated by referencing anatomical landmarks determined on the face with 2-dimensional photogrammetry using ImageJ (Version 1.53q) program. Both groups were similar in terms of facial measurements (P > 0.05). Axial trunk rotation values of the mid-thoracic and thoraco-lumbar regions were significantly higher on both sides of the asymmetry group (P < 0.05). The distances between facial landmarks are not associated with asymmetries of spine regions (P > 0.05). Although the sensitivity and predictive value of facial asymmetries in determining trunk asymmetries and sagittal spinal posture were low, it was concluded that comparative studies are needed, especially in individuals with asymmetry at the level of scoliosis, as the asymmetries of the individuals in our study were not at the level of scoliosis.

Facial Anthropometric Measurements and Principles - Overview and Implications for Aesthetic Treatments.

Facial anatomy is highly individual in each patient. Anthropometric measurements can be a useful tool to objectively analyze individual facial anatomy to allow for better comparability before and after treatments to ultimately improve standardization of facial procedures, both nonsurgical and surgical. The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive overview over clinically relevant and feasible facial anthropometric measurements and principles for aesthetic medicine. A literature review was conducted to describe the most important and clinically relevant anthropometric measurements and principles for both the entire face and for three aesthetically relevant facial regions: the periorbital region, the nose, and the perioral region. A multitude of different anthropometric measurements and principles have been described in the literature for both the overall facial appearance and specific facial regions. Certain generally accepted anthropometric principles and proportions need to be respected to achieve aesthetic and harmonious results. For the overall facial appearance, a focus on symmetry, certain proportions, facial angles, and indices has been described. Principles and measurements were also described for the periorbital region, the nose, and the perioral region. Although attractiveness and aesthetic perception are subjective, objective evaluation of facial surface anatomy via anthropometric measurements can improve pre- and postinterventional analysis of the face and help the treating physician to individualize treatments, both nonsurgical and surgical.

Medieval migrations and the birth of modern British peoples: a craniometric approach

Craniometric characteristics have long been used to reconstruct among-group variation, potential migration routes and ancestral origins. This study presents results of the comparison of 946 individuals from 16 British medieval sites using craniometric analyses. The purpose is to determine: 1) if observable cranial variation exists among British medieval groups, 2) whether it can best be detected from neurocranial or facial measurements, and 3) the potential causes of these differences.The data were analyzed with multivariate statistical analyses. A selection of 18 variables recorded on each cranium was used for comparison among separately pooled males and females for each site. Principal component analysis was carried out on the mean measurements for these pooled samples to detect differences.The results support findings from previous studies indicating a observable difference in measurements among British samples. Male and female samples follow the same grouping pattern, indicating the validity of the statistical analysis. Both neurocranial and facial measurements contribute to the variability of the groups analyzed.The differences in craniometric measurements are likely determined by immigration from other European areas. Samples from British towns where migration occurred more frequently during and before the Middle Ages (i.e., Hythe, London and Scarborough) support this difference. These towns were major ports, and the movement of people was frequent, with various migrant groups selectively populating them (e.g., Scandinavian, Icelandic, Flemish, French). This is supported by correspondence of the results with historical and archaeological records.