Face-like Patterns Research Articles

Preliminary evidence of an increased susceptibility to face pareidolia in postpartum women.

As primates, we are hypersensitive to faces and face-like patterns in the visual environment, hence we often perceive illusory faces in otherwise inanimate objects, such as burnt pieces of toast and the surface of the moon. Although this phenomenon, known as face pareidolia, is a common experience, it is unknown whether our susceptibility to face pareidolia is static across our lifespan or what factors would cause it to change. Given the evidence that behaviour towards face stimuli is modulated by the neuropeptide oxytocin (OT), we reasoned that participants in stages of life associated with high levels of endogenous OT might be more susceptible to face pareidolia than participants in other stages of life. We tested this hypothesis by assessing pareidolia susceptibility in two groups of women; pregnant women (low endogenous OT) and postpartum women (high endogenous OT). We found evidence that postpartum women report seeing face pareidolia more easily than women who are currently pregnant. These data, collected online, suggest that our sensitivity to face-like patterns is not fixed and may change throughout adulthood, providing a crucial proof of concept that requires further research.

Assessing the perception of face pareidolia in children (Homo sapiens), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella).

Face pareidolia is the misperception of a face in an inanimate object and is a common feature of the face detection system in humans. Whereas there are many similarities in how humans and nonhuman animals such as monkeys perceive and respond to faces, it is still unclear whether other species also perceive certain nonface stimuli as faces. We presented a novel computerized task to capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and preschool-aged children (Homo sapiens). This task trained subjects to choose faces over nonface images, and then presented pareidolia images with nonface images. All species selected faces most often on trials that included face images. However, only children selected pareidolia images at levels above chance. These results indicate that while children report perceiving face pareidolia, monkeys do not. These species differences could be due to human-unique experiences that result in an increased aptitude for anthropomorphizing objects with face-like patterns. It could also be due to monkeys showing a greater reliance on stimulus features rather than global, holistically organized cues that faces provide. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Dynamic Face Perception: The Role of Expertise in Dual Processing of Features and Configuration

Face perception is the basis of many types of social information exchange, but there is controversy over its underlying mechanisms. Researchers have theorized two processing pathways underlying facial perception: configural processing and featural processing. Featural processing focuses on the individual features of a face, whereas configural processing focuses on the spatial relations of features. To resolve the debate on the relative contribution of the two pathways in face perception, researchers have proposed a dual processing model that the two pathways contribute to two different perceptions, detecting face-like patterns and identifying individual faces. The dual processing model is based on face perception experiments that primarily use static faces. As we mostly interact with dynamic faces in real life, the generalization of the model to dynamic faces will advance our understanding of how faces are perceived in real life. This paper proposes a refined dual processing model of dynamic face perception, in which expertise in dynamic face perception supports identifying individual faces, and it is a learned behaviour that develops with age. Specifically, facial motions account for the advantages of dynamic faces, compared to static faces. This paper highlights two intrinsic characteristics of facial motions that enable the advantages of dynamic faces in face perception. Firstly, facial motion provides facial information from various viewpoints, and thus supports the generalization of face perception to the unlearned view of faces. Secondly, distinctive motion patterns serve as a cue to the identity of the face.

Spontaneous Visual Preference for Face-Like Stimuli Is Impaired in Newly-Hatched Domestic Chicks Exposed to Valproic Acid During Embryogenesis.

Faces convey a great amount of socially relevant information related to emotional and mental states, identity and intention. Processing of face information is a key mechanism for social and cognitive development, such that newborn babies are already tuned to recognize and orient to faces and simple schematic face-like patterns since the first hours of life. Similar to neonates, also non-human primates and domestic chicks have been shown to express orienting responses to faces and schematic face-like patterns. More importantly, existing studies have hypothesized that early disturbances of these mechanisms represent one of the earliest biomarker of social deficits in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We used VPA exposure to induce neurodevelopmental changes associated with ASD in domestic chicks and tested whether VPA could impact the expression of the animals’ approach responses to schematic face-like stimuli. We found that VPA impairs the chicks’ preference responses to these social stimuli. Based on the results shown here and on previous studies, we propose the domestic chick as animal model to investigate the biological mechanisms underlying face processing deficits in ASD.

Affective analysis of visual scenes using face pareidolia and scene-context

This study presents a new computer vision approach to perform affective analysis of a scene or object. The approach utilises a simulation of the phenomenon of face pareidolia that can be described as the perception of non-existent faces, for example, in random textures, clouds or rock formations. The emergence of face pareidolia in product designs and natural scenes can modulate affective perception of our everyday experiences without our conscious awareness. We propose a new deep learning method to simulate the face pareidolia ability of humans and predict associated emotional responses in two-dimensional valence and arousal space. Starting from a face detector that was trained on images of human faces, we propose a novel cross-domain weakly supervised three-step progressive domain adaptation approach to simulate face pareidolia by fine-tuning the human face detector on three types of synthetically generated sample images. Our approach fuses two deep network models, one model for predicting valence and arousal from abstract and minimal face-like patterns producing face pareidolia, and a second for recognising overall moods and context associated with the scene. To evaluate our approach, we constructed a new dataset containing instance-level annotations of face pareidolia occurrences as well as valence and arousal emotional values associated with the overall scene. The quantitative and qualitative experimental results of the present study demonstrate that our approach can outperform other state-of-the-art methods in face pareidolia detection as well as in predicting associated emotions.

Iris Sommer—unravelling biological mechanisms of psychiatric disorders

When Iris Sommer retires, she wants to leave behind a new treatment for psychiatric illness that really makes a difference. “I realise this is easier said than done,” she tells The Lancet Psychiatry. “In neurology, we understand underlying mechanisms so much better than before. But in psychiatry, we are still trying to understand even the basic mechanisms behind many conditions.” Directed pharmacological therapy of ambiguous genitalia due to an androgen receptor gene mutationWe report a 46, XY infant with an M807T mutation in his androgen receptor that abrogated cellular responses to testosterone, but not to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), resulting in ambiguous genitalia. Treatment with a topical DHT gel restored male genital development allowing the infant to be reared in accordance with his chromosomal sex. Full-Text PDF Amisulpride and olanzapine followed by open-label treatment with clozapine in first-episode schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder (OPTiMiSE): a three-phase switching studyFor most patients in the early stages of schizophrenia, symptomatic remission can be achieved using a simple treatment algorithm comprising the sequential administration of amisulpride and clozapine. Since switching to olanzapine did not improve outcome, clozapine should be used after patients fail a single antipsychotic trial—not until two antipsychotics have been tried, as is the current recommendation. Full-Text PDF Prosopometamorphopsia and facial hallucinationsIn July, 2011, a 52-year-old woman presented to our psychiatric outpatient clinic in The Hague with a life-long history of seeing people's faces change into dragon-like faces and hallucinating similar faces many times a day. She could perceive and recognise actual faces, but after several minutes they turned black, grew long, pointy ears and a protruding snout, and displayed a reptiloid skin and huge eyes in bright yellow, green, blue, or red. She saw similar dragon-like faces drifting towards her many times a day from the walls, electrical sockets, or the computer screen, in both the presence and absence of face-like patterns, and at night she saw many dragon-like faces in the dark. Full-Text PDF

Anomalous visual experience is linked to perceptual uncertainty and visual imagery vividness

An imbalance between top-down and bottom-up processing on perception (specifically, over-reliance on top-down processing) can lead to anomalous perception, such as illusions. One factor that may be involved in anomalous perception is visual mental imagery, which is the experience of “seeing” with the mind’s eye. There are vast individual differences in self-reported imagery vividness, and more vivid imagery is linked to a more sensory-like experience. We, therefore, hypothesized that susceptibility to anomalous perception is linked to individual imagery vividness. To investigate this, we adopted a paradigm that is known to elicit the perception of faces in pure visual noise (pareidolia). In four experiments, we explored how imagery vividness contributes to this experience under different response instructions and environments. We found strong evidence that people with more vivid imagery were more likely to see faces in the noise, although removing suggestive instructions weakened this relationship. Analyses from the first two experiments led us to explore confidence as another factor in pareidolia proneness. We, therefore, modulated environment noise and added a confidence rating in a novel design. We found strong evidence that pareidolia proneness is correlated with uncertainty about real percepts. Decreasing perceptual ambiguity abolished the relationship between pareidolia proneness and both imagery vividness and confidence. The results cannot be explained by incidental face-like patterns in the noise, individual variations in response bias, perceptual sensitivity, subjective perceptual thresholds, viewing distance, testing environments, motivation, gender, or prosopagnosia. This indicates a critical role of mental imagery vividness and perceptual uncertainty in anomalous perceptual experience.

What Experts Appreciate in Patterns: Art Expertise Modulates Preference for Asymmetric and Face-Like Patterns

This study set out to investigate whether and how aesthetic evaluations of different types of symmetric, as well as abstract vs. representational patterns are modulated by art expertise. To this end, we utilized abstract asymmetric, symmetric, and “broken” patterns slightly deviating from symmetry, as well as more representational patterns resembling faces (also symmetric or broken). While it has already been shown that symmetry preference decreases with art expertise, it was still unclear whether an already established relationship between art expertise and preference for abstract over representational art can be similarly found as a preference for abstract over representational patterns, as these are non-art objects. Nevertheless, we found profound differences in aesthetic preferences between art experts and laypersons. While art experts rated asymmetric patterns higher than laypersons, as expected, they rated face-like patterns lower than laypersons. Also, laypersons rated all other types of patterns higher than asymmetric patterns, while art experts rated the other patterns similar or lower than asymmetric patterns. We found this both for liking and for interest ratings. As no differences between art experts and laypersons were found regarding memory recognition of new and old patterns, this effect is not likely due to differences in memory performance. In sum, this study further extends our knowledge about the influence of art expertise on aesthetic appreciation.

A Prototypical Template for Rapid Face Detection Is Embedded in the Monkey Superior Colliculus.

Human babies respond preferentially to faces or face-like images. It has been proposed that an innate and rapid face detection system is present at birth before the cortical visual pathway is developed in many species, including primates. However, in primates, the visual area responsible for this process is yet to be unraveled. We hypothesized that the superior colliculus (SC) that receives direct and indirect retinal visual inputs may serve as an innate rapid face-detection system in primates. To test this hypothesis, we examined the responsiveness of monkey SC neurons to first-order information of faces required for face detection (basic spatial layout of facial features including eyes, nose, and mouth), by analyzing neuronal responses to line drawing images of: (1) face-like patterns with contours and properly placed facial features; (2) non-face patterns including face contours only; and (3) nonface random patterns with contours and randomly placed face features. Here, we show that SC neurons respond stronger and faster to upright and inverted face-like patterns compared to the responses to nonface patterns, regardless of contrast polarity and contour shapes. Furthermore, SC neurons with central receptive fields (RFs) were more selective to face-like patterns. In addition, the population activity of SC neurons with central RFs can discriminate face-like patterns from nonface patterns as early as 50 ms after the stimulus onset. Our results provide strong neurophysiological evidence for the involvement of the primate SC in face detection and suggest the existence of a broadly tuned template for face detection in the subcortical visual pathway.

Cortical route for facelike pattern processing in human newborns

Humans are endowed with an exceptional ability for detecting faces, a competence that, in adults, is supported by a set of face-specific cortical patches. Human newborns, already shortly after birth, preferentially orient to faces, even when they are presented in the form of highly schematic geometrical patterns vs. perceptually equivalent nonfacelike stimuli. The neural substrates underlying this early preference are still largely unexplored. Is the adult face-specific cortical circuit already active at birth, or does its specialization develop slowly as a function of experience and/or maturation? We measured EEG responses in 1- to 4-day-old awake, attentive human newborns to schematic facelike patterns and nonfacelike control stimuli, visually presented with slow oscillatory "peekaboo" dynamics (0.8 Hz) in a frequency-tagging design. Despite the limited duration of newborns' attention, reliable frequency-tagged responses could be estimated for each stimulus from the peak of the EEG power spectrum at the stimulation frequency. Upright facelike stimuli elicited a significantly stronger frequency-tagged response than inverted facelike controls in a large set of electrodes. Source reconstruction of the underlying cortical activity revealed the recruitment of a partially right-lateralized network comprising lateral occipitotemporal and medial parietal areas overlapping with the adult face-processing circuit. This result suggests that the cortical route specialized in face processing is already functional at birth.

Affective Visual Perception Using Machine Pareidolia of Facial Expressions

This article presents a computer vision approach that can detect and classify abstract face-like patterns, including subliminal faces within a scene. This can be regarded as a way of simulating the phenomenon of pareidolia, that is, the tendency of humans to ‘see faces’ in random structures such as clouds or rocks. The paper describes the system consisting of a component-based face detector and an expression classifier. The face detector creates a number of component images from the original image at different resolutions. A component image is a binary edge image where the edges are segmented into components using a labelling method with a border-following technique. The component images are then overlaid to produce a component height map where large and notable components across all resolutions have high values, while specular and noisy components have low values. The method retains three-shape components, representing two eyes and a mouth, that have height map values that are larger than the noise cut-off value. Support vector machines using scale-invariant feature vectors are applied for ranking these three-shape components by their geometry and size, and their shape semblance to human faces in the training data. The outcome is a facial expression analysis system that uses face components, with the potential to estimate an emotional expression value for a scene by producing an array of emotion scores corresponding to Ekman’s seven Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion. An advantage of this technique, when compared to a holistic method, is that the face components are explicitly isolated. This supports a process of abstraction that can facilitate the detection of distorted and minimal face-like patterns.

Finding faces among faces: human faces are located more quickly and accurately than other primate and mammal faces

We tested the specificity of human face search efficiency by examining whether there is a broad window of detection for various face-like stimuli-human and animal faces-or whether own-species faces receive greater attentional allocation. We assessed the strength of the own-species face detection bias by testing whether human faces are located more efficiently than other animal faces, when presented among various other species' faces, in heterogeneous 16-, 36-, and 64-item arrays. Across all array sizes, we found that, controlling for distractor type, human faces were located faster and more accurately than primate and mammal faces, and that, controlling for target type, searches were faster when distractors were human faces compared to animal faces, revealing more efficient processing of human faces regardless of their role as targets or distractors (Experiment 1). Critically, these effects remained when searches were for specific species' faces (human, chimpanzee, otter), ruling out a category-level explanation (Experiment 2). Together, these results suggest that human faces may be processed more efficiently than animal faces, both when task-relevant (targets) and task-irrelevant (distractors), even in direct competition with other faces. These results suggest that there is not a broad window of detection for all face-like patterns but that human adults process own-species' faces more efficiently than other species' faces. Such own-species search efficiencies may arise through experience with own-species faces throughout development or may be privileged early in development, due to the evolutionary importance of conspecifics' faces.

Neuronal responses to face-like and facial stimuli in the monkey superior colliculus

The superficial layers of the superior colliculus (sSC) appear to function as a subcortical visual pathway that bypasses the striate cortex for the rapid processing of coarse facial information. We investigated the responses of neurons in the monkey sSC during a delayed non-matching-to-sample (DNMS) task in which monkeys were required to discriminate among five categories of visual stimuli [photos of faces with different gaze directions, line drawings of faces, face-like patterns (three dark blobs on a bright oval), eye-like patterns, and simple geometric patterns]. Of the 605 sSC neurons recorded, 216 neurons responded to the visual stimuli. Among the stimuli, face-like patterns elicited responses with the shortest latencies. Low-pass filtering of the images did not influence the responses. However, scrambling of the images increased the responses in the late phase, and this was consistent with a feedback influence from upstream areas. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of the population data indicated that the sSC neurons could separately encode face-like patterns during the first 25-ms period after stimulus onset, and stimulus categorization developed in the next three 25-ms periods. The amount of stimulus information conveyed by the sSC neurons and the number of stimulus-differentiating neurons were consistently higher during the 2nd to 4th 25-ms periods than during the first 25-ms period. These results suggested that population activity of the sSC neurons preferentially filtered face-like patterns with short latencies to allow for the rapid processing of coarse facial information and developed categorization of the stimuli in later phases through feedback from upstream areas.

Modeling the minimal newborn's intersubjective mind: the visuotopic-somatotopic alignment hypothesis in the superior colliculus.

The question whether newborns possess inborn social skills is a long debate in developmental psychology. Fetal behavioral and anatomical observations show evidences for the control of eye movements and facial behaviors during the third trimester of pregnancy whereas specific sub-cortical areas, like the superior colliculus (SC) and the striatum appear to be functionally mature to support these behaviors. These observations suggest that the newborn is potentially mature for developing minimal social skills. In this manuscript, we propose that the mechanism of sensory alignment observed in SC is particularly important for enabling the social skills observed at birth such as facial preference and facial mimicry. In a computational simulation of the maturing superior colliculus connected to a simulated facial tissue of a fetus, we model how the incoming tactile information is used to direct visual attention toward faces. We suggest that the unisensory superficial visual layer (eye-centered) and the deep somatopic layer (face-centered) in SC are combined into an intermediate layer for visuo-tactile integration and that multimodal alignment in this third layer allows newborns to have a sensitivity to configuration of eyes and mouth. We show that the visual and tactile maps align through a Hebbian learning stage and and strengthen their synaptic links from each other into the intermediate layer. It results that the global network produces some emergent properties such as sensitivity toward the spatial configuration of face-like patterns and the detection of eyes and mouth movement.

Neuronal responses to face‐like stimuli in the monkey pulvinar

The pulvinar nuclei appear to function as the subcortical visual pathway that bypasses the striate cortex, rapidly processing coarse facial information. We investigated responses from monkey pulvinar neurons during a delayed non-matching-to-sample task, in which monkeys were required to discriminate five categories of visual stimuli [photos of faces with different gaze directions, line drawings of faces, face-like patterns (three dark blobs on a bright oval), eye-like patterns and simple geometric patterns]. Of 401 neurons recorded, 165 neurons responded differentially to the visual stimuli. These visual responses were suppressed by scrambling the images. Although these neurons exhibited a broad response latency distribution, face-like patterns elicited responses with the shortest latencies (approximately 50 ms). Multidimensional scaling analysis indicated that the pulvinar neurons could specifically encode face-like patterns during the first 50-ms period after stimulus onset and classify the stimuli into one of the five different categories during the next 50-ms period. The amount of stimulus information conveyed by the pulvinar neurons and the number of stimulus-differentiating neurons were consistently higher during the second 50-ms period than during the first 50-ms period. These results suggest that responsiveness to face-like patterns during the first 50-ms period might be attributed to ascending inputs from the superior colliculus or the retina, while responsiveness to the five different stimulus categories during the second 50-ms period might be mediated by descending inputs from cortical regions. These findings provide neurophysiological evidence for pulvinar involvement in social cognition and, specifically, rapid coarse facial information processing.

Cortical sensitivity to contrast polarity and orientation of faces is modulated by temporal-nasal hemifield asymmetry.

Behavioral studies demonstrate that the efficiency of detection of faces is dependent on configural and contrast polarity information characteristic to human faces. Stimulus inversion or contrast polarity reversal can disrupt this process. We investigated whether a face-sensitive event-related potential component, the N170, is modulated by the orientation and contrast polarity of highly degraded schematic face-like patterns (Experiment 1) in the same manner as it is for face photographs (Experiment 2). Inversion and/or contrast reversal delayed and enhanced the N170 for both kinds of stimuli, suggesting that a white oval with three black squares is sufficient to elicit face-sensitive cortical responses. In Experiment 3 we further tested whether the extrageniculate visual pathways modulate early cortical responses to faces. We found that the N170 responses to configural and contrast information are modulated by temporal-nasal visual field asymmetry under monocular viewing conditions, suggesting the involvement of subcortical, extrageniculate visual pathways in face detection. These results are consistent with the idea that an ontogenetically early and primitive bias to orient towards face-like patterns with relevant configural and contrast information influences the early stages of cortical face processing.

No more top-heavy bias: Infants and adults prefer upright faces but not top-heavy geometric or face-like patterns

A non-specific "top-heavy" configuration bias has been proposed to explain neonatal face preference (F. Simion, E. Valenza, V. Macchi Cassia, C. Turati, & C. Umiltà, 2002). Using an eye tracker (Tobii T60), we investigated whether the top-heavy bias is still present in 3- to 5.5-month-old infants and in adults as a comparison group. Each infant and adult viewed three classes of stimuli: simple geometric patterns, face-like figures, and photographs of faces. Using area of interest analyses on fixation duration, we computed a top-heavy bias index (a number between -1 and 1) for each individual. Our results showed that the indices for the geometric and face-like patterns were about zero in infants, indicating no consistent bias for the "top-heavy" configuration. In adults, the indices for the geometric and face-like patterns were also close to zero except for the T-shaped figure and the ones that had higher rating on facedness. Moreover, the indices for photographs of faces were positive in both infants and adults, indicating significant preferences for upright natural faces over inverted ones. Taken together, we found no evidence for the top-heavy configuration bias in both infants and adults. The absence of top-heavy bias plus a clear preference for photographed upright faces in infants seem to suggest an early cognitive specialization process toward face representation.

One-month-old infants show visual preference for human-like feature

Infants’ behaviors toward humans differ from those toward objects since early development. Previous studies have mainly investigated the role of motion for the distinction between human and non-human objects, although physical appearance is another crucial factor. The present study investigated one-month-old infants’ responses to the still-image of human faces and non-human objects including face-like pattern (doll and object), using this infant-control preferential looking procedure. The results revealed the infants’ preference for human faces over objects including face-like patterns but no such preferences for humans over dolls. The infants preferred faces resembling human faces in the absence of motion information. Such preferences for human-like features supplement evidence on the first step of early social cognition, which is important in human communication.

Faces in the Mist: Illusory Face and Letter Detection

We report three behavioral experiments on the spatial characteristics evoking illusory face and letter detection. False detections made to pure noise images were analyzed using a modified reverse correlation method in which hundreds of observers rated a modest number of noise images (480) during a single session. This method was originally developed for brain imaging research, and has been used in a number of fMRI publications, but this is the first report of the behavioral classification images. In Experiment 1 illusory face detection occurred in response to scattered dark patches throughout the images, with a bias to the left visual field. This occurred despite the use of a fixation cross and expectations that faces would be centered. In contrast, illusory letter detection (Experiment 2) occurred in response to centrally positioned dark patches. Experiment 3 included an oval in all displays to spatially constrain illusory face detection. With the addition of this oval the classification image revealed an eyes/nose/mouth pattern. These results suggest that face detection is triggered by a minimal face-like pattern even when these features are not centered in visual focus.

Temporal-nasal asymmetry of rapid orienting to face-like stimuli

Recent work suggests that a subcortical visual route may mediate rapid orienting towards faces in the visual periphery. We now demonstrate that this orienting bias towards faces shows a temporal-nasal visual field asymmetry of responses, supporting the view that it is mediated by extrageniculate pathways. Upright schematic face-like pattern elicited faster behavioural responses than inverted one in the temporal but not in the nasal hemifield of each eye. This effect occurred for saccades but not for manual responses. The presence of a similar asymmetry of the orienting bias in newborns supports the role of extrageniculate pathways in face detection in both neonates and adults.