Facade Design Research Articles

A Comprehensive Approach to Facade Design for Preventing Rainwater Penetration: Implementation in Spanish Regions

Rainwater penetration into building facades results in multiple issues, including material and structural degradation, reduced energy efficiency, and health-related concerns among occupants. Currently, the watertightness performance of building facades is assessed based on standardized tests, which simulate generic water supplies and pressure differentials that do not reflect the specific exposure conditions of each facade. Consequently, practitioners’ decisions regarding facade design often rely on qualitative and imprecise criteria that do not align with the actual climatic loads. In this article, a comprehensive approach to facade design for preventing rainwater penetration is described, incorporating specific methodological refinements for reliable and practical implementation across various Spanish regions. In this approach, the parameters surpassed during any watertightness test (defined by the magnitude and duration of the water supplies and pressure differentials) are correlated with the recurrence of equivalent climatic exposures at the facade (determined by the climatic conditions of the site, facade height, and surrounding environment), thereby quantitatively characterizing the facade watertightness performance. The findings used to refine this method for implementation in Spain are illustrated and validated using selected case studies, and a comprehensive database is provided to enable its application at 360 locations distributed across various regions of the country.

Assessment of heating degree-days factor (HDDF) for building-oriented climate zoning in Türkiye

ABSTRACT In this study, a novel heating degree-days factor (HDDF) is proposed to determine the optimum facade design for buildings in Türkiye as a function of both cooling degree-days (CDD) and heating degree-days (HDD) data. For this purpose, the HDDF (HDD/(HDD+CDD)) is defined as the ratio of the heating degree-days of a region to the total heating and cooling degree-days. Firstly, the HDDF values of all provinces in Türkiye are calculated by using meteorological data from 81 meteorological stations covering the period 1991–2022, and HDDF performance is evaluated. Then, the building-oriented climate zoning is realized based on the HDDF values. Moreover, historical trends of monthly and yearly average HDD, CDD, and HDDF values are revealed and yearly HDD, CDD, and HDDF maps were created using the ArcGIS program. According to the results, HDDF values in Türkiye varied between 0.4519 and 0.9998, and HDDF values between 0.9 ≤ HDDF ≤ 1 cover 46 out of 81 cities in the country and span a broad area across the country. The findings suggest that if global warming continues at the current rate, cooling energy demand in the residential sector will dramatically increase in the future, while heating energy demand will fall in Türkiye. This indicates that domestic energy consumption regulations would require modification. The building-oriented climate zoning resulting from this study is unique to Türkiye and can aid engineers, architects, and policymakers in building energy efficiency programs, studies, regulations, and standards.

Facade Design and the Outdoor Acoustic Environment: A Case Study at Batna 1 University

The relationship between architectural design and outdoor acoustic environments remains underexplored, particularly in educational spaces where noise levels impact comfort and usability. This study investigates the impact of building facade height on the outdoor acoustic environment in university courtyards. Acoustic measurements were conducted in two courtyards at Batna 1 University, each surrounded by buildings with distinct facade heights. Key acoustic parameters, including reverberation time (RT), early decay time (EDT), rapid speech transmission index (RaSTI), Definition (D50), and sound pressure level (SPL) attenuation were evaluated at specified source-receiver distances. The results reveal a strong correlation between RT20 and distance at higher frequencies due to building facade reflections, while lower frequencies are more influenced by geometric configuration and material absorption properties. The results demonstrate that RT and EDT increase logarithmically or polynomially with distance, especially at higher frequencies (2000–4000 Hz), due to the decrease in direct sound energy and increase in reflected sound amplitude. Taller building facades lead to longer RT and EDT values compared to lower heights. D50 and RaSTI decrease polynomially with increasing source–receiver distance, with lower values observed in the courtyard with taller facades, indicating reduced speech clarity. The SPL attenuation is influenced by surrounding geometry, with the least reduction in the courtyard with lower facade heights, followed by the taller facade courtyard, contrasting with semi-free field conditions. These findings highlight the significant role of building facade height and architectural elements in shaping the acoustic characteristics of outdoor spaces, providing valuable insights for designing acoustically comfortable urban environments, particularly in educational settings.

Assessment of merits and demerits of perpendicular and slanted photovoltaic/thermal facades

This study compares the thermal and electrical energy production potential and wind load assessment of perpendicular versus slanted photovoltaic (PV) facades. The goal is to identify the optimal facade orientation for societal adoption based on energy efficiency and wind load considerations. Using Hybrid RANS/LES models, the aerodynamic performance and energy yield of both orientations are analyzed under varying angles and environmental conditions. The findings show that while the slanted façade is better designed to capture solar irradiance, it produces 4 to 8 % less energy than the perpendicular façade and yields approximately 2 % less exergy efficiency due to wind regime. However, the slanted design reduces wind load by 9.8 %, enhancing structural stability. The maximum thermal energy output of 217 kW is recorded from the perpendicular façade at a wind speed of 1 m/s, while the slanted façade generates a peak electrical power of 68 kW at 8 m/s wind speed. Overall, the perpendicular façade underscores more efficient in equal weather conditions, making it a sustainable choice for PV installation. These results provide valuable insights for architects, engineers, and policymakers in optimizing PV facade design for urban environments.

Innovative Integration Of Modern Facade Design With Traditional Bubungan Tinggi Facade: Towards a Sustainable Home

Innovative Integration Of Modern Facade Design With Traditional Bubungan Tinggi Facade: Towards a Sustainable Home

Empirical study of facade retrofits for optimizing energy efficiency and cooling in school buildings in Saudi Arabia

Educational buildings in Saudi Arabia are characterized by high energy consumption, primarily due to cooling and lighting demands. This study aims to evaluate and optimize facade retrofitting strategies to improve energy efficiency and evaluate economic performance of many scenarios in Saudi school buildings, aligning with the sustainability objectives of Saudi Vision 2030. The research employs a simulation-based optimization methodology utilizing Design Builder software to explore key facade design variables, including Window-to-Wall Ratio, glazing type, local shading devices, and external wall insulation. The methodology is structured in sequential stages: it begins with the collection of base-case data, followed by a data-driven optimization process targeting specific design variables. This is then complemented by an economic and environmental assessment of the optimal retrofit scenarios, ultimately leading to the identification of the most effective energy-saving solution presented at the conclusion of the study. Through an optimization process, the research identifies retrofitting strategies that reduce cooling loads by up to 17 %, lighting energy consumption by 49 % and annual energy costs by 18 %. The study also includes an economic analysis of the retrofits, revealing significant savings in annual electricity costs and a reduction in the building's carbon footprint. This research contributes valuable insights into sustainable building practices, offering practical solutions for improving energy efficiency in the educational sector. The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive analysis of facade retrofits within the context of extreme climatic conditions, which provides a replicable model for retrofitting educational buildings across the region. The findings have significant implications for policymakers, architects, and sustainability advocates seeking to meet Saudi Arabia's energy conservation goals.

Comparing the Effectiveness of Dynamic Facades for Natural Daylight and Energy Usage in Buildings

Abstract In this research, we explore the integration of dynamic facades to enhance both aesthetics and energy efficiency in buildings. The study introduces two dynamic facade designs, one employing a triangular shape and the other inspired by origami folds, aiming to compare their effectiveness in optimising natural daylight and overall energy usage. The triangular facade features movable wings that dynamically regulate natural light, balancing visual appeal and practical functionality. Similarly, the origami-inspired design adapts to external conditions, creating a symbiotic relationship between form and function. The research employs Python and Rhino 7 with Honeybee and Pollination plug-ins for a comparative analysis. The evaluation includes Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA300,50) exceeding 55%, Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE1000,250) no more than 10%-20%, and optimal facade opening angles based on daylight factor (df) values. The dynamic facades are examined for their impact on energy efficiency, encompassing factors like natural daylight, and operational energy. Through this analysis, the study aims to determine which dynamic facade design, triangular or origami-inspired, proves superior in optimising natural daylighting and overall energy usage. This research contributes valuable insights into the balance of innovative architectural designs and sustainable energy practices, potentially influencing future building designs.

Demountable structures: evaluation of a circular design approach through life cycle assessment

Abstract The demand to reduce the use of raw materials, construction waste, and the negative environmental impacts of the construction sector is constantly increasing. New circular design strategies, such as Design for Disassembly, are intended to meet these challenges. Furthermore, circular strategies facilitate the easy and quick replacement of building components during end-of-life phases, as well as the efficient and waste-free deconstruction of entire buildings for subsequent reuse. However, building structures developed according to these strategies can have a higher environmental burden in the production or use phase of their life cycle. To confirm the actual environmental benefits of circular constructions, the paper utilizes the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method as a vital tool for the environmental evaluation of circular structures. As a case study, fully demountable and conventional masonry building façade systems with insulation are analyzed through a cradle-to-cradle approach over 2 life cycles. Several End-of-Life scenarios, as well as reuse and the benefits it provides, were considered during the assessment. Examining eight environmental indicators, the comparative analysis of linear and circular facade design approaches in the chosen case studies provides insights into efficient and environmentally friendly solutions.

A multi-criteria decision support framework for designing seismic and thermal resilient facades

Facades play a pivotal role in the performance of a building, serving various environmental, structural and operational functions. As climate-induced extreme events become more frequent, developing resilient facades is becoming crucial. Although facades can contribute significantly to the total post-disruption losses, their resilience is not sufficiently addressed in current design approaches. In response to this research gap, this study proposes a multi-criteria decision-making methodology to select optimal facade designs using resilience criteria: resilience loss and economic loss. The framework addresses the complexity of facade design, considering multiple hazards such as earthquakes and heatwaves. For seismic hazard, the facade’s resilience is defined as its ability to mitigate damage. In the case of heat hazard, resilience is assessed based on the ability to keep indoor conditions within a comfortable thermal range. To demonstrate the applicability of the proposed methodology, a case study of an 18-story office building in Izmir (Turkey) is used to compare alternative facade packages. These packages identify the facade design cases, each coupled with a dataset of seismic and thermal fragility curves. Numerical simulations are conducted to derive seismic and thermal resilience curves for each facade package, along with resilience criteria. These criteria are embedded into a practical decision-making process to enable the selection of the optimal design case based on project specifications.

Examining Facade Adaptability: A Study of Adaptive Facade Classification Criteria

In this research, the facade classification of three different buildings located in Europe, Asia and Australia is carried out by using a classification model developed by utilising the criteria of some adaptive facade classification models in the literature. The control parameters affecting the facade design, physical environment criteria, facade adaptation method, control system and technique, visibility of adaptation and time scale criteria in the model are discussed in detail. Besides, the historical development, contemporary trends and basic parameters on architecture are analysed comprehensively. The emergence of adaptive architecture is discussed, as well as efforts to demonstrate changes in the design of elements sensitive to dynamic environmental and user needs. Furthermore, how adaptability is integrated with the building envelope and facade, the historical evolution of adaptive facades, and the development of key components are also examined. Thus, this study aims to make an important contribution to understanding adaptive architecture and adaptive facades while categorising examples of adaptive facades across three continents, including cultural and geographical differences.

Design and modeling of PV-integrated Double Skin Facades and application to retrofit buildings

Double Skin Façade (DSF) system comprises two glazing layers with a ventilated cavity. Integrating photovoltaic (PV) modules within the outer layer of DSFs offers an efficient method for electricity generation. Current tools for modeling and analyzing DSF systems are complex and resource-intensive, lacking the capability to evaluate the performance of innovative PV-DSF systems during the early design stage. This study develops a mathematical model to evaluate the electrical and thermal performance of PV-DSF systems, considering architectural design elements such as PV color and relative orientation. Based on an energy balance approach, the model is particularly suited for designing PV-DSF systems in heritage buildings, which often have color and relative orientation constraints. The model is applied to assess the performance of PV-DSF systems with conventional clear glass PV and colored front glass PV modules under the climatic conditions of Montreal, Canada. Results indicated that conventional clear glass PV module exhibit higher PV cell temperature than colored PV modules due to greater transmissivity, with peak temperature differences at noon of 5.5 °C, 6.2 °C, and 6.5 °C for orange, blue, and gray PV modules, respectively. On the contrary, the influence of PV's color front glass on room air temperature is non-significant. Furthermore, the optimal orientation for maximum energy yield is not always south-facing; it depends on the hourly distribution of the beam, diffuse solar irradiation, and ambient air temperature. For Montreal, west-facing DSFs produce more electrical and thermal energy on a summer design day because the hourly distribution of beam radiation is skewed towards afternoon hours.

Multi-Objective Optimization of a Folding Kinetic Facade System Proposal for Thermal, Daylight, and Energy Performances

Efficient utilization of daylight and energy resources significantly influences the quality of indoor spaces, user comfort, and overall efficiency. This study presents a folding facade proposal through the design alternatives offered by kinetic architecture and parametric design to enhance efficiency. This alternative design method integrates and coordinates the design components simultaneously and makes any intervention easier when compared with traditional design methods. In this context, the method is based on computational models, aiming to find the most efficient design alternative by optimization. The proposed facade design specifically targets an indoor office space within a university. The modular system, integrated into existing windows, facilitates a folding movement. This dynamic feature aims to optimize illumination within the space, effectively controlling daylight without causing disruptions to users. Simultaneously, the design seeks to balance energy consumption and ensure thermal comfort. The results show that it provides a significant improvement over the base case. The proposed kinetic façade system improved indoor thermal comfort by 22.09-31.99% while slightly increasing energy use (2% at most). Although it provided an average of 59% improvement in spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA), 13.30% - 87.38% was achieved compared to the base case. However, the desired value by LEED was achieved very little in Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE). In conclusion, the proposed kinetic facade system proves to be a valuable intervention for enhancing the indoor environment of an office space at Dokuz Eylül University

FDIE: a graph-based framework for extracting design information from annotated building facade images

ABSTRACT Images of building facades, rich in design information, are important for architectural studies. In recent years, numerous studies have explored the automatic recognition and annotation of basic elements (e.g. windows) in these images. However, most application of the recognized elements remains at the pixel level, such as 3D reconstruction, and the design information hidden behind the elements cannot be processed using common data analysis methods because the annotations are still unstructured data. This prevents us from further discovering the composition pattern of building facades from the images. To enable the recognized elements to be analyzed, a framework for facade design information extraction (FDIE) from annotated building facade images based on graph theory is proposed in this paper. The design information is divided into three categories, i.e. graphic, relationship, and sum information, and extracted as structured data. An image restoration test demonstrates that more than 95% of the design information can be extracted using the FDIE. These structured data provide an important basis for intelligent analysis of composition pattern. Several examples and cases partly illustrate the application prospects of the extracted information. Other graph-based analysis methods are also expected to be applied to the extracted design information.

Effects of Building Materials on Sustainable Facade Design

Facade designs are crucial in creating the identity of buildings, as they allow buildings to interact with users, form ideas,and evoke curiosity. Designers have been working to develop materials for facades since 7000 BC, with sustainability beinga key subheading in the innovation process. Sustainable architecture has evolved, influenced by lifestyles, geographicalconditions, social and physical needs, and economic reasons. Through the examination of many instances of the material'shistorical evolution, the purpose of this research is to investigate the impacts of the material that is utilized in sustainablebuilding designs. It also examines examples of the use of nanotechnological facade materials, which are among thesustainable facade technologies of the future. Within this context, the methods being followed about the issue have beendetermined and the possible solutions have been discussed.

Analysis of historical and future cooling degree days over Türkiye for facade design and energy efficiency in buildings

In today’s examination of optimal facade design for buildings, facade performance has a significant influence on cooling energy consumption. Cooling degree days (CDD) is regarded as a basic and straightforward approach for predicting building cooling energy consumption. Accurate seasonal trend forecasting of the CDD plays a vital role in estimating the energy demand for building cooling. Unfortunately, there are no published statistics or research on Turkey’s CDD data for the following years. The monthly mean CDD data of Türkiye were created in this study utilizing data from the Turkish State Meteorological Service for the historical period from 1991 to 2022. The Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) approach was used to model the CDD data, and a time series forecast was performed. The SARIMA model was used to forecast the future trend of CDD from 2023 to 2040. The monthly and yearly CDD statistics were presented as figures, while the yearly CDD maps for Türkiye were created using the ArcGIS software program. Finally, CDD zones that require more attention to the most appropriate facade design in terms of energy efficiency for buildings in Türkiye were identified and classified.

Knowledge-Driven and Diffusion Model-Based Methods for Generating Historical Building Facades: A Case Study of Traditional Minnan Residences in China

The preservation of historical traditional architectural ensembles faces multifaceted challenges, and the need for facade renovation and updates has become increasingly prominent. In conventional architectural updating and renovation processes, assessing design schemes and the redesigning component are often time-consuming and labor-intensive. The knowledge-driven method utilizes a wide range of knowledge resources, such as historical documents, architectural drawings, and photographs, commonly used to guide and optimize the conservation, restoration, and management of architectural heritage. Recently, the emergence of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies has provided new solutions for creating architectural facades, introducing a new research paradigm to the renovation plans for historic districts with their variety of options and high efficiency. In this study, we propose a workflow combining Grasshopper with Stable Diffusion: starting with Grasshopper to generate concise line drawings, then using the ControlNet and low-rank adaptation (LoRA) models to produce images of traditional Minnan architectural facades, allowing designers to quickly preview and modify the facade designs during the renovation of traditional architectural clusters. Our research results demonstrate Stable Diffusion’s precise understanding and execution ability concerning architectural facade elements, capable of generating regional traditional architectural facades that meet architects’ requirements for style, size, and form based on existing images and prompt descriptions, revealing the immense potential for application in the renovation of traditional architectural groups and historic districts. It should be noted that the correlation between specific architectural images and proprietary term prompts still requires further addition due to the limitations of the database. Although the model generally performs well when trained on traditional Chinese ancient buildings, the accuracy and clarity of more complex decorative parts still need enhancement, necessitating further exploration of solutions for handling facade details in the future.

Sustainable and Resilient Engineering for Facade Design under Uncertainty in the Tropics

Sustainable and Resilient Engineering for Facade Design under Uncertainty in the Tropics

Biomimetic Facade Design Proposal to Improving Thermal Comfort in Hot Climate Region

Biomimetic Facade Design Proposal to Improving Thermal Comfort in Hot Climate Region

Evaluation of Shading of Green Facades on Visual Comfort and Thermal load of the Buildings

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the building’s green façade on regulating the indicators of daylight, visual comfort, heating and cooling load, and its features (such as the density of greenery and distance from the main facade). The effects of simulating 30 distinct green facade designs for various building fronts were examined. The findings reveal that altering the green facade’s distance (between 0 and 50 cm) had no discernible impact on the variables. The values of DA, UDImax, and cooling load have lowered by increasing density from 20 % to 100 %. The heating burden has grown, though. Higher densities of the green facade between different distances show a greater difference in the values of the tested variables than lower densities. For instance, at 100 % density, the UDImax value rose from the highest to lowest distance (0.50 cm) by 59.6 %, but at 20 % density, this shift was only 2.9 %.

Towards a bio-inspired design of a photovoltaic facade

Facing the challenges of climate change, energy sovereignty and urban densification, operation of local resources and available areas remains an important issue. Integration of photovoltaic components on building envelope is therefore an essential solution to produce manage energy flexibility and obtain Nearly Zero Energy Building. In order to optimize permanently their electrical and thermal performances facing building needs, photovoltaic facades functionalities should adapt and evolve with weather conditions. Bio-inspired design is a breakthrough approach to provide adaptability to physical, mechanical and optical properties of photovoltaic envelope. Therefore, this paper presents the thermal modelling and numerical parametric studies in the case of a photovoltaic bifacial ventilated facade realized with the purpose to identify properties that should acquire adaptive features. Physics related to the identified parameters allow paving the way for the search and the selection of suitable biological adaptive mechanisms. The results of this study indicate that radiative and optical properties of the photovoltaic ventilated facade are the most influential and conflict-inducing parameters on both its electrical and thermal performances. Thus, to provide adaptability to those properties, biological search should be led on live species dealing with extreme heat and radiation and developing adaptive functions aiming to control solar radiation intake.