Eye-tracking Techniques Research Articles

Differences between Dyslexic and Non-Dyslexic Children in the Performance of Phonological Visual-Auditory Recognition Tasks: An Eye-Tracking Study.

The object of this study was to explore further phonological visual-auditory recognition tasks in a group of fifty-six healthy children (mean age: 9.9 ± 0.3) and to compare these data to those recorded in twenty-six age-matched dyslexic children (mean age: 9.8 ± 0.2). Eye movements from both eyes were recorded using an infrared video-oculography system (MobileEBT® e(y)e BRAIN). The recognition task was performed under four conditions in which the target object was displayed either with phonologically unrelated objects (baseline condition), or with cohort or rhyme objects (cohort and rhyme conditions, respectively), or both together (rhyme + cohort condition). The percentage of the total time spent on the targets and the latency of the first saccade on the target were measured. Results in healthy children showed that the percentage of the total time spent in the baseline condition was significantly longer than in the other conditions, and that the latency of the first saccade in the cohort condition was significantly longer than in the other conditions; interestingly, the latency decreased significantly with the increasing age of the children. The developmental trend of phonological awareness was also observed in healthy children only. In contrast, we observed that for dyslexic children the total time spent on the target was similar in all four conditions tested, and also that they had similar latency values in both cohort and rhyme conditions. These findings suggest a different sensitivity to the phonological competitors between dyslexic and non-dyslexic children. Also, the eye-tracking technique provides online information about phonological awareness capabilities in children.

The Impact of Early Bilingualism on Face Recognition Processes.

Early linguistic experience has an impact on the way we decode audiovisual speech in face-to-face communication. The present study examined whether differences in visual speech decoding could be linked to a broader difference in face processing. To identify a phoneme we have to do an analysis of the speaker’s face to focus on the relevant cues for speech decoding (e.g., locating the mouth with respect to the eyes). Face recognition processes were investigated through two classic effects in face recognition studies: the Other-Race Effect (ORE) and the Inversion Effect. Bilingual and monolingual participants did a face recognition task with Caucasian faces (own race), Chinese faces (other race), and cars that were presented in an Upright or Inverted position. The results revealed that monolinguals exhibited the classic ORE. Bilinguals did not. Overall, bilinguals were slower than monolinguals. These results suggest that bilinguals’ face processing abilities differ from monolinguals’. Early exposure to more than one language may lead to a perceptual organization that goes beyond language processing and could extend to face analysis. We hypothesize that these differences could be due to the fact that bilinguals focus on different parts of the face than monolinguals, making them more efficient in other race face processing but slower. However, more studies using eye-tracking techniques are necessary to confirm this explanation.

Using support vector machines to identify literacy skills: Evidence from eye movements

Is inferring readers' literacy skills possible by analyzing their eye movements during text reading? This study used Support Vector Machines (SVM) to analyze eye movement data from 61 undergraduate students who read a multiple-paragraph, multiple-topic expository text. Forward fixation time, first-pass rereading time, second-pass fixation time, and regression path reading time on different regions of the text were provided as features. The SVM classification algorithm assisted in distinguishing high-literacy-skilled readers from low-literacy-skilled readers with 80.3% accuracy. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of combining eye tracking and machine learning techniques to detect readers with low literacy skills, and suggest that such approaches can be potentially used in predicting other cognitive abilities.

IMPACT OF SCHEMATIC DESIGNS ON THE COGNITION OF UNDERGROUND TUBE MAPS

Schematic maps have been popularly employed to represent transport networks, particularly underground tube lines (or metro lines), since its adoption by the Official London Underground in early 1930s. Such maps employ straightened lines along horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions. Recently, some researchers started to argue that the distortion in such a schematization may cause big distortion and some new designs are proposed. This project aims to make a comparative analysis of such a schematic design with a new design proposed by Mark Noad in 2011, which makes use of lines along 30º and 60º directions instead of the 45º direction. Tasks have been designed for evaluating the effect of schematic designs on route planning by travellers. The participant was asked to choose the route s/he would take among two or three possible route options and then read the name of the selected transfer station. Eye-tracking technique has been employed to track the map recognition process. Total travel time is used as criterion for effectiveness; completion time and mental work cost are used for efficiency evaluation. It has been found that (1) the design of map style has significant impact on users’ travel decision making, especially map distance and transfer station symbol designs, and (2) the design style of a schematic map will have great impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of map recognition.

IMPACT OF SCHEMATIC DESIGNS ON THE COGNITION OF UNDERGROUND TUBE MAPS

Abstract. Schematic maps have been popularly employed to represent transport networks, particularly underground tube lines (or metro lines), since its adoption by the Official London Underground in early 1930s. Such maps employ straightened lines along horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions. Recently, some researchers started to argue that the distortion in such a schematization may cause big distortion and some new designs are proposed. This project aims to make a comparative analysis of such a schematic design with a new design proposed by Mark Noad in 2011, which makes use of lines along 30º and 60º directions instead of the 45º direction. Tasks have been designed for evaluating the effect of schematic designs on route planning by travellers. The participant was asked to choose the route s/he would take among two or three possible route options and then read the name of the selected transfer station. Eye-tracking technique has been employed to track the map recognition process. Total travel time is used as criterion for effectiveness; completion time and mental work cost are used for efficiency evaluation. It has been found that (1) the design of map style has significant impact on users’ travel decision making, especially map distance and transfer station symbol designs, and (2) the design style of a schematic map will have great impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of map recognition.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PANORAMIC MAPS DESIGN: A PRELIMINARY STUDY BASED ON MOBILE EYE-TRACKING

Abstract. This paper presents preliminary results from an ongoing research based on the study of visual attention through mobile eye-tracking techniques. The visual-cognitive approach investigates the reading-comprehension of a particular territorial representation: ski trails maps. The general issue of the study is to provide insights about the effectiveness of panoramic ski maps and more broadly, to suggest innovative efficient representation of the geographic information in mountain. According to some mountain operators, the information provided by paper ski maps no longer meets the needs of a large part of the customers; the question now arises of their adaptation to new digital practices (iPhone, tablets). In a computerized process perspective, this study particularly focuses on the representations, and the inferred information, which are really helpful to the users-skiers to apprehend the territory and make decisions, and which could be effectively replicated into a digital system. The most interesting output relies on the relevance of the panorama view: panorama still fascinates, but contrary to conventional wisdom, the information it provides does not seem to be useful to the skier. From a socio-historical perspective this study shows how empirical evidence-based approach can support the change: our results enhance the discussion on the effectiveness of the message that mountain operators want to convey to the tourist and therefore, on the renewal of (geographical) information in ski resorts.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PANORAMIC MAPS DESIGN: A PRELIMINARY STUDY BASED ON MOBILE EYE-TRACKING

This paper presents preliminary results from an ongoing research based on the study of visual attention through mobile eye-tracking techniques. The visual-cognitive approach investigates the reading-comprehension of a particular territorial representation: ski trails maps. The general issue of the study is to provide insights about the effectiveness of panoramic ski maps and more broadly, to suggest innovative efficient representation of the geographic information in mountain. According to some mountain operators, the information provided by paper ski maps no longer meets the needs of a large part of the customers; the question now arises of their adaptation to new digital practices (iPhone, tablets). In a computerized process perspective, this study particularly focuses on the representations, and the inferred information, which are really helpful to the users-skiers to apprehend the territory and make decisions, and which could be effectively replicated into a digital system. The most interesting output relies on the relevance of the panorama view: panorama still fascinates, but contrary to conventional wisdom, the information it provides does not seem to be useful to the skier. From a socio-historical perspective this study shows how empirical evidence-based approach can support the change: our results enhance the discussion on the effectiveness of the message that mountain operators want to convey to the tourist and therefore, on the renewal of (geographical) information in ski resorts.

Word processing during reading sentences in patients with schizophrenia: evidences from the eyetracking technique

PurposeThe current study analyze the effect of word properties (i.e., word length, word frequency and word predictability) on the eye movement behavior of patients with schizophrenia (SZ) compared to age-matched controls. Method18 SZ patients and 40 age matched controls participated in the study. Eye movements were recorded during reading regular sentences by using the eyetracking technique. Eye movement analyses were performed using linear mixed models. FindingsAnalysis of eye movements revealed that patients with SZ decreased the amount of single fixations, increased their total number of second pass fixations compared with healthy individuals (Controls). In addition, SZ patients showed an increase in gaze duration, compared to Controls. Interestingly, the effects of current word frequency and current word length processing were similar in Controls and SZ patients. The high rate of second pass fixations and its low rate in single fixation might reveal impairments in working memory when integrating neighbor words. In contrast, word frequency and length processing might require less complex mechanisms, which were functioning in SZ patients. ConclusionTo the best of our knowledge, this is the first study measuring how patients with SZ process dynamically well-defined words embedded in regular sentences. The findings suggest that evaluation of the resulting changes in eye movement behavior may supplement current symptom-based diagnosis.

Visualization of Data Regarding Infections Using Eye Tracking Techniques.

To evaluate ease of use and usefulness for nurses of visualizations of infectious disease transmission in a hospital. An observational study was used to evaluate perceptions of several visualizations of data extracted from electronic health records designed using a participatory approach. Twelve nurses in the master's program in an urban research-intensive nursing school participated in May 2015. A convergent parallel mixed method was used to evaluate nurses' perceptions on ease of use and usefulness of five visualization conveying trends in hospital infection transmission applying think-aloud, interview, and eye-tracking techniques. Subjective data from the interview and think-aloud techniques indicated that participants preferred the traditional line graphs in simple data representation due to their familiarity, clarity, and easiness to read. An objective quantitative measure of eye movement analysis (444,421 gaze events) identified a high degree of participants' attention span in infographics in all three scenarios. All participants responded with the correct answer within 1 min in comprehensive tests. A user-centric approach was effective in developing and evaluating visualizations for hospital infection transmission. For the visualizations designed by the users, the participants were easily able to comprehend the infection visualizations on both line graphs and infographics for simple visualization. The findings from the objective comprehension test and eye movement and subjective attitudes support the feasibility of integrating user-centric visualization designs into electronic health records, which may inspire clinicians to be mindful of hospital infection transmission. Future studies are needed to investigate visualizations and motivation, and the effectiveness of visualization on infection rate. This study designed visualization images using clinical data from electronic health records applying a user-centric approach. The design insights can be applied for visualizing patient data in electronic health records.

Missing the best opportunity; who can seize the next one? Agents show less inaction inertia than personal decision makers

Inaction inertia is a prevalent consumer decision bias, whereby missing a superior opportunity decreases the likelihood of acting on a subsequent opportunity in the same domain. We assume that a cognitive focus accounts for the inaction inertia effect. Individuals focus more on losses (the association between the current opportunity and missed opportunity) than gains (the association between the current opportunity and original states), therefore showing the inaction inertia effect. We also propose a self–other difference in inaction inertia: agents exhibit less inaction inertia than personal decision makers as they focus more on gains than losses compared to personal decision makers. In Study 1, agents were less trapped in inaction inertia than personal decision makers. Cognitive focus was measured with eye-tracking techniques in Study 2 and a self-reported item in Study 3. Agents were observed as focusing less on losses than gains compared to personal decision makers. This cognitive focus difference explained the self–other difference in inaction inertia. In Study 4, both types of decision makers were less susceptible to inaction inertia when focusing on gains than losses.

Corneal-Reflection Eye-Tracking Technique for the Assessment of Horizontal Sound Localization Accuracy from 6 Months of Age.

The evaluation of sound localization accuracy (SLA) requires precise behavioral responses from the listener. Such responses are not always possible to elicit in infants and young children, and procedures for the assessment of SLA are time consuming. The aim of this study was to develop a fast, valid, and objective method for the assessment of SLA from 6 months of age. To this end, pupil positions toward spatially distributed continuous auditory and visual stimuli were recorded. Twelve children (29 to 157 weeks of age) who passed the universal newborn hearing screening and eight adults (18 to 40 years of age) who had pure-tone thresholds ≤20 dB HL in both ears participated in this study. Horizontal SLA was measured in a sound field with 12 loudspeaker/display (LD)-pairs placed in an audiological test room at 10 degrees intervals in the frontal horizontal plane (±55 degrees azimuth). An ongoing auditory-visual stimulus was presented at 63 dB SPL(A) and shifted to randomized loudspeakers simultaneously with pauses of the visual stimulus. The visual stimulus was automatically reintroduced at the azimuth of the sounding loudspeaker after a sound-only period of 1.6 sec. A corneal-reflection eye-tracking technique allowed the acquisition of the subjects' pupil positions relative to the LD-pairs. The perceived azimuth was defined as the median of the intersections between gaze and LD-pairs during the final 500 msec of the sound-only period. Overall SLA was quantified by an Error Index (EI), where EI = 0 corresponded to perfect match between perceived and presented azimuths, whereas EI = 1 corresponded to chance. SLA was rapidly measured in children (mean = 168 sec, n = 12) and adults (mean = 162 sec, n = 8). Visual inspection of gaze data indicated that gaze shifts occurred in sound-only periods. The medians of the perceived sound-source azimuths either coincided with the presenting sound-source azimuth or were offset by a maximum of 20 degrees in children. In contrast, adults revealed a perfect match from -55 to 55 degrees, except at 15 degrees azimuth (median = 20 degrees), with 9/12 of the quartile ranges = 0 degrees. Children showed a mean (SD) EI of 0.42 (0.17), which was significantly higher than that in adults (p < 0.0001). However, children revealed a distinct age-related EI improvement of 16 percentage points per year (r = -0.68, p = 0.015, n = 12), suggesting an ongoing maturation of SLA in the studied age range (29 to 157 weeks). The eight adults showed high SLA and high reliability as demonstrated by the low mean (SD) EI (0.054 [0.021]) and the low variability in test-retest differences (95% confidence interval = -0.020 to 0.046). Corneal-reflection eye-tracking provides an objective and fast assessment of horizontal SLA from about 6 months of age and may enable gaze to be used as an objective measure for sound localization in this age group. Infant SLA is immature and improvements are related to increasing age. Adults show high overall SLA and low intra- and intersubject variability in SLA. The technique may be used as a clinical tool for the evaluation of very early intervention in a young, preverbal population and throughout the life span.

Risk Assessment for Subjective Evidence-Based Ethnography Applied in High Risk Environment

Subjective Evidence-Based Ethnography (SEBE) is a family of methods developed for investigation in social science based on subjective audio-video recordings with a miniature video-camera usually worn at eye-level (eye-tracking techniques are included). Despite its application to the analysis of high risk professions (e.g. anesthetists, aircraft pilots, nuclear reactor pilots) and the potential additional risks it induces, no suggestions regarding these concerns and no solutions helping researchers to anticipate this kind of risks are available in the literature. Aiming at filling this gap, we undertook a study of SEBE equipment applied to the analysis of workers’ activities on a nuclear power plant. The method was divided in three phases: i) observations and discussions on full scale simulators of activities undertaken by one or two workers (N=42) to characterize the consequences of the SEBE equipment, ii) bibliographic research combined with results of first phase to elaborate a risk assessment protocol, iii) analysis of its application in real operating situations (N=17). The elaborated protocol gave satisfactory results in terms of risk prevention and time application: No incident or accident occurred and the risk assessment took less than five minutes. The observations highlighted however a risk of side-effect (using SEBE equipment to justify subjects’ mistake or failure) giving greater importance to the necessity of this sort of risk assessment protocol. To date, the protocol needs to be tested in other industrial contexts in order to be improved and/or to confirm its robustness.

Cross-linguistic differences affect late Chinese-English learners on-line processing of English tense and aspect

Aims: The present study aimed to explore how varied cross-linguistic differences affect late Chinese-English learners’ on-line processing of tense and aspect in English. Methodology: We used the self-paced reading task (Experiment 1) and the eye-tracking technique (Experiment 2) to test the above question. Data and analysis: Reading times in Experiment 1 and first-fixation duration, and gaze time in Experiment 2 in four interested positions were analysed in R by ANOVAs and t-tests. Findings: Both high- and low-proficiency participants showed their sensitivity to the violation of progressive, which is nearly congruent between English and Chinese. Only high-proficiency participants were sensitive to the violation of past tense, which is similar but not congruent between Chinese and English. With regard to present third person singular, which is incongruent between Chinese and English, high-proficiency participants also showed their sensitivity to its violation; however, this sensitivity is only detected by the eye-tracking method (Experiment 2). These results suggested that cross-linguistic differences affect late second language learners’ on-line processing of English tense and aspect. Originality: To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first one exploring varied cross-linguistic differences’ influence on late Chinese-English learners’ on-line processing of tense and aspect in English. Significance: Our results provide new evidence to support the Performance Deficit Account.

What do users see when health information with different levels of sensitivity is presented on Facebook?: Preliminary findings with eye tracking techniques

ABSTRACTSocial networking sites are popularly used for health information dissemination. However, little research has been carried out on how users view the disseminated health information. This study using eye tracking techniques investigates how users view presented information differently when health information with various levels of topic sensitivity is presented as topic sensitivity is one of important factors that impacts user's health information behavior on social media. The findings indicate that the content of posts are viewed the most frequently, followed by source information and post information. User engagement elements are viewed depending on the quality of the conversations in the comments. This study utilizes eye tracking techniques and provides further insights into how users view information and various elements differently on Facebook.

Eye Tracking Method Compatible with Dual-screen Mammography Workstation

In this paper a new approach is proposed to track the perceptual behaviour of radiologists when they examine mammographic images displayed on large dual clinical monitors. Zooming and panning are inevitably performed by the radiologist to examine such large images by using the DICOM viewing software. Such image manipulating movements on the target displays makes eye tracking techniques difficult to perform and also the size of the dual clinical monitors makes existing eye tracking techniques generally inadequate. Hence a method using the Smart Eye Pro eye tracker and optical character recognition techniques was designed to relate the recorded radiologists’ eye gaze behaviour on the monitors to the actual zoomed and panned medical image areas. This then allows clinical studies involving radiologists interacting with these mammographic images to be successfully carried out.

Directional backlight 3D display system with wide-dynamic-range view zone, high brightness and switchable 2D/3D

In this paper, we present an autostereoscopic display system with wide-dynamic-range view zone, high brightness and switchable 2D/3D. For this purpose, we propose a novel directional backlight system inspired by an optical splitter. Combined with eye tracking technique and LED-lit matrix, we expand the viewing zone and achieve 2D/3D switchable properties. And the design of direct illumination-type LED backlight improves the brightness significantly. The mathematical analysis and logic principle of the system is provided in this paper. And also, we build an autostereoscopic display prototype by the directional backlight system, and demonstrate experimentally that our system gives the viewer freedom both of viewing position and viewing environment with images of high quality.

Cognitive Neuroscience in Information Systems Research

This paper reviews cognitive neuroscience and several neurophysiological tools (e.g., fMRI, PET, EEG, MEG, and eye tracking). The strengths and weaknesses of such tools for information systems research are presented. The paper provides examples of existing cognitive neuroscience studies in varies areas, such as neuroeconomics, neuromarketing, and eye tracking. In addition, this paper provides an overview of brain areas that response to various mental processes, and discusses the localization and functionality of each brain area. Because of the popularity of eye-tracking research in information systems, measurements and metrics related and derived from eye-tracking technique (e.g., fixation, saccades and scanpath) are described and discussed in this paper. Opportunities for applying cognitive neuroscience techniques to IS research as well as future research directions are also discussed.

Attentional Bias in Remitted Depressed Patients: Evidence from an Eye- Tracking Study

Objectives: To investigate the attentional characteristics of remitted depressed (RD) patients toward both happy and sad facial expressions. Methods: Eye-movement data for the free-viewing facial expressions information of two groups (RD patients and healthy control (HC)) were acquired using the eye-tracking technique. The RD patients’ initial attentional orientation toward different pieces of emotional information and their attentional related to the attention-maintenance components were analyzed. Results: (1) On the initial orienting indicators (direction of initial gaze and initial fixation latency) and the initial attention maintenance indicators (first fixation duration), the RD patients showed no attentional toward the emotional faces; (2) For the late-stage attention maintenance indicators (total fixation time), both the RD group and the HC group exhibited attentional toward happy faces; the was smaller in the RD group than in the HC group; (3) For the RD group, there was a positive correlation between the direction of the initial gaze toward happy faces and total fixation time and a negative correlation between the initial fixation latency toward happy faces and total fixation time, whereas there were no such correlations in the HC group. Conclusions: The RD group displayed an attentional trend for happy faces, and this increase in the positive reflected the RD patients’ subjective, active efforts to establish a protective bias that would both alleviate and improve depressive symptoms.

Extended Framework for Usability Testing in e-Navigation Systems

The paper presents the framework of usability testing of Electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) equipment based on the International Maritime Organization (IMO)’s Guidelines on Software Quality Assurance and Human-centred Design for e-Navigation. By incorporating the eye tracking techniques into the procedure it was possible to measure the visual attention distribution and the cognitive work-load. The presented method could be used to evaluate usability of every e-navigation system, which is necessary to ensure that the seafarers are able to successfully perform primary operations of systems upgraded with e-navigation functions, regardless of the type and specifications of the system and users’ knowledge and experience with the system. The initial results are presented and discussed as the study is still ongoing.

Evaluación del color en materiales multimedia. Una experiencia con eye tracking.

A lo largo de las dos últimas décadas se ha producido en el ámbito educativo un importante desarrollo tecnológico, generalizándose el uso de materiales multimedia en el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje. El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar el uso de una técnica de evaluación de materiales educativos novedosa: la técnica de eye tracking. Para mostrar un caso de aplicación de esta técnica de evaluación se realizó una experiencia en la cual fue incluido un dispositivo de seguimiento de la mirada en el proceso de recogida de datos. En el experimento se mostró una presentación con información en blanco y negro, frente a otra en la que se hace uso del color. Una vez analizados los datos concluimos que se realiza un aprendizaje más eficiente cuando señalamos algunas áreas de interés con colorido que permiten resaltar aquellas zonas en las que queremos que los niños centren su atención. Frente a otros estudios que pueden llegar a esta misma conclusión, el empleo de técnicas de seguimiento ocular proporciona una forma de validar de forma objetiva, cuantitativa y fisiológica dicho resultado.