Eye-tracking Approach Research Articles

The first- and second-language age of acquisition effect in first- and second-language book reading

Abstract The age of acquisition (AoA) effect in first/monolingual language processing has received much attention in psycholinguistic research. However, AoA effects in second language processing were only investigated rarely. In the current study, we investigated first (L1) and second language (L2) AoA effects in a combined eye tracking and mega study approach. We analyzed data of a corpus of eye movements to assess the time course of AoA effects on bilingual reading. We found an effect of L2 AoA in both early and late measures of L2 reading: fixation times were faster for words that were learned earlier in L2. This suggests that the L2 AoA effect has an influence throughout the entire L2 reading process, analogous to the L1 AoA effect. However, we are also the first to find an early effect of L1 AoA on L2 processing: if the L1 translation of the L2 word was learned earlier, the L2 word was also read faster. We discuss the implications of these findings for two important hypotheses that offer an explanation for the AoA effect: the mapping and semantic hypothesis. We propose that the current results suggest an integration between these accounts.

Using Eye Tracking to Explore Consumers' Visual Behavior According to Their Shopping Motivation in Mobile Environments.

Despite a strong shift to mobile shopping trends, many in-depth questions about mobile shoppers' visual behaviors in mobile shopping environments remain unaddressed. This study aims to answer two challenging research questions (RQs): (a) how much does shopping motivation like goal orientation and recreation influence mobile shoppers' visual behavior toward displays of shopping information on a mobile shopping screen and (b) how much of mobile shoppers' visual behavior influences their purchase intention for the products displayed on a mobile shopping screen? An eye-tracking approach is adopted to answer the RQs empirically. The experimental results showed that goal-oriented shoppers paid closer attention to products' information areas to meet their shopping goals. Their purchase intention was positively influenced by their visual attention to the two areas of interest such as product information and consumer opinions. In contrast, recreational shoppers tended to visually fixate on the promotion area, which positively influences their purchase intention. The results contribute to understanding mobile shoppers' visual behaviors and shopping intentions from the perspective of mindset theory.

Using an Eye-Tracking Approach to Explore Gender Differences in Visual Attention and Shopping Attitudes in an Online Shopping Environment

ABSTRACTGrowth in online marketing has been unprecedented, and mainstream shopping is shifting from traditional stores to online shopping channels. However, many aspects of online consumer behavior remain unaddressed. In particular, the effects of gender differences in visual attention on shopping attitudes are a great challenge in online retailers’ attempts to understand consumers’ cognitive processing and strategies. This study was designed to investigate the effects of gender on visual attention to online shopping information and its influence on attitudes about the products displayed. Using an eye-tracking approach, the results identified significant gender differences in visual attention to online shopping information and shopping attitudes about the products presented. Female participants attended visually to most of the online shopping information areas to a greater degree than did males, and their attitudes about products were influenced to some degree by visual attention to the consumer opinion areas. Although males’ visual attention was lower than females’, their shopping attitudes were influenced extensively by visual attention to product information and consumer opinion areas.

Escaping the corner of death? An eye-tracking study of reading direction influence on attention and memory

PurposeThe authors aim to examine the effect of location-driven logo placement on attention and memory on the web addressing differences between individuals that read unidirectionally (left-to-right [LTR]) versus bidirectionally (both right-to-left and LTR).Design/methodology/approachUsing an eye-tracking approach combined with traditional verbal measures, the authors compared attention and memory measures from a sample composed of bidirectional (Arab/English) readers and unidirectional readers.FindingsThe findings reveal that unidirectional and bidirectional readers differ in attention patterns. Compared to bidirectional readers, unidirectional readers pay less attention to the logo on the bottom right corner of the webpage based on verbal measures. The eye-tracking data of the two groups further identify differences based on total hits and duration time. Unidirectional LTR readers demonstrate higher fluency in feature-based attention whereas bidirectional readers show higher fluency in spatial attention.Originality/valueThe authors expand on scarce research on reading direction bias effect on location-driven stimuli placement in online settings. They contribute to the understanding of the differences between unidirectional and bidirectional readers in their cognitive responses (attention and memory) to organization of marketing stimuli.

顔をおぼえるのが上手い人・下手な人：再認実験と視線計測からのアプローチ

顔をおぼえるのが上手い人・下手な人：再認実験と視線計測からのアプローチ

Empirical Analysis of Consumer’s Cognitive Load and Need-for-Cognition When Faced with Emotional and Rational Advertising Stimuli: Emphasis on Eye-Tracking Approach

This study aims to seek optimal combination of advertising copies and images to maximize advertising effects on customers. To check how much our proposed method has impacts on customers, we adopted a physiological technique like eye-tracking method to secure more object analysis of the customers' response to the advertising copies and images that we have designed for this study. Exhaustive literature survey exhibits that there are no studies seeking appropriate combination of advertising copies and images so that customers may respond in a physiologically positive way. For this purpose, we organized heterogeneous stimuli and homogeneous stimuli to make appropriate stimuli, where heterogeneous stimuli consist of either emotional copies and rational images, or rational copies and emotional images. Homogeneous stimuli are designed to consist of either emotional copies and emotional images, or rational copies and rational images. 80 respondents were invited to our experiments, and their physiological responses were measured in a form of cognitive load and need-for-cognition. Eye-tracking methods were used to induce fixation length data from the analysis of participants’ eye-movement with the stimuli. Participant’s cognitive load increased more when they were exposed to heterogeneous stimuli, while participant’s fixation length changed significantly only when there exists interaction effect between cognitive load and need-for-cognition in response to the stimuli.

EYE TRACKING TO EXPLORE THE IMPACTS OF PHOTOREALISTIC 3D REPRESENTATIONS IN PEDSTRIAN NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE

Abstract. Despite the now-ubiquitous two-dimensional (2D) maps, photorealistic three-dimensional (3D) representations of cities (e.g., Google Earth) have gained much attention by scientists and public users as another option. However, there is no consistent evidence on the influences of 3D photorealism on pedestrian navigation. Whether 3D photorealism can communicate cartographic information for navigation with higher effectiveness and efficiency and lower cognitive workload compared to the traditional symbolic 2D maps remains unknown. This study aims to explore whether the photorealistic 3D representation can facilitate processes of map reading and navigation in digital environments using a lab-based eye tracking approach. Here we show the differences of symbolic 2D maps versus photorealistic 3D representations depending on users’ eye-movement and navigation behaviour data. We found that the participants using the 3D representation were less effective, less efficient and were required higher cognitive workload than using the 2D map for map reading. However, participants using the 3D representation performed more efficiently in self-localization and orientation at the complex decision points. The empirical results can be helpful to improve the usability of pedestrian navigation maps in future designs.

EYE TRACKING TO EXPLORE THE IMPACTS OF PHOTOREALISTIC 3D REPRESENTATIONS IN PEDSTRIAN NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE

Despite the now-ubiquitous two-dimensional (2D) maps, photorealistic three-dimensional (3D) representations of cities (e.g., Google Earth) have gained much attention by scientists and public users as another option. However, there is no consistent evidence on the influences of 3D photorealism on pedestrian navigation. Whether 3D photorealism can communicate cartographic information for navigation with higher effectiveness and efficiency and lower cognitive workload compared to the traditional symbolic 2D maps remains unknown. This study aims to explore whether the photorealistic 3D representation can facilitate processes of map reading and navigation in digital environments using a lab-based eye tracking approach. Here we show the differences of symbolic 2D maps versus photorealistic 3D representations depending on users’ eye-movement and navigation behaviour data. We found that the participants using the 3D representation were less effective, less efficient and were required higher cognitive workload than using the 2D map for map reading. However, participants using the 3D representation performed more efficiently in self-localization and orientation at the complex decision points. The empirical results can be helpful to improve the usability of pedestrian navigation maps in future designs.

For your eyes only? Evaluating a coordinated and multiple views tool with a map, a parallel coordinated plot and a table using an eye-tracking approach

ABSTRACTGeographic visualization tools with coordinated and multiple views (CMV) typically provide sets of visualization methods. Such configuration gives users the possibility of investigating data in various visual contexts; however, it can be confusing due to the multiplicity of visual components and interactive functions. We addressed this challenge and conducted an empirical study on how a CMV tool, consisting of a map, a parallel coordinate plot (PCP), and a table, is used to acquire information. We combined a task-based approach with eye-tracking and usability metrics since these methods provide comprehensive insights into users’ behaviour. Our empirical study revealed that the freedom to choose visualization components is appreciated by users. The individuals worked with all the available visualization methods and they often used more than one visualization method when executing tasks. Different views were used in different ways by various individuals, but in a similarly effective way. Even PCP, which is claimed to be problematic, was found to be a handy way of exploring data when accompanied by interactive functions.

Assessing the Effectiveness and Efficiency of Map Colour for Colour Impairments Using an Eye-tracking Approach

Colour impairments influences access to geographical information which is usually represented by colour maps. Three dimensions of colour: Hue, Saturation and Value (HSV), are intuitive and most critical visual variables in map design. In this paper, we specifically focus on colour deficiency of red-green colour impairments. A controlled experiment was designed and conducted to explore how three colour dimensions (HSV) affect the abilities of people with normal colour vision or with red-green colour impairments to distinguish colours in maps. An eye-tracking approach was applied to quantify the accuracy and response time by capturing user eye movements to analyse the effectiveness and efficiency. In this study, we used one section of the administrative map of Hebei Province to test participant responses to area features. Differences of effectiveness and efficiency across normal colour vision and red-green colour impairments were compared. Multiple comparisons among Hue, Saturation and Value were analysed. Results show that for both normal colour vision and red-green colour impairments, Hue is the most differentiable than Saturation and Value. Saturation and Value are at the same level to be differentiated and more difficult to be distinguished. Guidelines of designing maps for both normal colour vision and red-green colour impairments were derived. The results of this study can be helpful to improve the map designs for colour deficiency.

Framework for Rapid Analysis of Consumers' Attention Processes while Looking at Print Advertisements —Eye-Tracking Approach Combined with Information Classification Scheme—

Framework for Rapid Analysis of Consumers' Attention Processes while Looking at Print Advertisements —Eye-Tracking Approach Combined with Information Classification Scheme—

カメラを用いた視線追跡のための装着型デバイス

The industry's recent growing interest in virtual reality, augmented reality and smart wearable devices has created a new momentum for eye tracking. Eye movements in particular are viewed as a way to obtain natural user responses from wearable devices alongside gaze information used to analyze interests and behaviors. This paper extends our previous work by introducing a wearable eye-tracking device that enables the reconstruction of 3D eye models of each eye from two RGB cameras. The proposed device is built using high-resolution cameras and a 3D-printed frame attached to a pair of JINS MEME glasses. The 3D eye models reconstructed from the proposed device can be used with any model-based eye-tracking approach. The proposed device is also capable of extracting scene information from the cornea reflections captured by the cameras, detecting blinks from an electrooculography sensor as well as tracking head movements from an accelerometer combined with a gyroscope.

Eye tracking system for enhanced learning experiences

Nowadays, we are living in a world where information is readily available and being able to provide the learner with the best suited situations and environment for his/her learning experiences is of utmost importance. In most learning environments, information is basically available in the form of written text. According to the eye-tracking technology, eye movements, scanning patterns and pupil diameter are indicators of thought and mental processing involved during visual information extraction. Hence, learners can be supported and guided throughout their learning journey by the real-time information of the precise position of gaze and of pupil diameter. A proper interpretation and consequently an efficient monitoring or supervision of learners' eye movements by different methods of eye tracking may lead to an enhanced learning process and experience. This research gives an insight of the various existing techniques that contribute to the improvement of the learning mechanism through proposing a real time monitoring system using image processing and eye detection techniques. To portray such a robust mechanism, a multipronged eye tracking approach has been envisioned. The system is deployed with a first identification of the user's eyes followed by the detection of the iris and pupil movements of the latter. Subsequently, the information about the eyes and pupil movements were analysed and graphs were generated that helps in determining the interest and behaviour of the user. To evaluate the accuracy of the system, some user tests and various scenarios in different application domains have been performed by computing the tracking error rate and as a result it has been noticed that these tests yield to an acceptable efficiency rate and a True Acceptance Rate (TAR) of around 75 %. Moreover, the proposed system is a low cost system and can be compatible with any computer or laptop equipped with an ordinary web camera.

Auditory artificial grammar learning in macaque and marmoset monkeys.

Artificial grammars (AG) are designed to emulate aspects of the structure of language, and AG learning (AGL) paradigms can be used to study the extent of nonhuman animals' structure-learning capabilities. However, different AG structures have been used with nonhuman animals and are difficult to compare across studies and species. We developed a simple quantitative parameter space, which we used to summarize previous nonhuman animal AGL results. This was used to highlight an under-studied AG with a forward-branching structure, designed to model certain aspects of the nondeterministic nature of word transitions in natural language and animal song. We tested whether two monkey species could learn aspects of this auditory AG. After habituating the monkeys to the AG, analysis of video recordings showed that common marmosets (New World monkeys) differentiated between well formed, correct testing sequences and those violating the AG structure based primarily on simple learning strategies. By comparison, Rhesus macaques (Old World monkeys) showed evidence for deeper levels of AGL. A novel eye-tracking approach confirmed this result in the macaques and demonstrated evidence for more complex AGL. This study provides evidence for a previously unknown level of AGL complexity in Old World monkeys that seems less evident in New World monkeys, which are more distant evolutionary relatives to humans. The findings allow for the development of both marmosets and macaques as neurobiological model systems to study different aspects of AGL at the neuronal level.

Using eye tracking to evaluate the usability of animated maps

Cartographic animation has been developed and widely used in geo-visualisation and many other areas in recent years. The usability of animated maps is a key characteristic affecting map users’ effectiveness and efficiency in accomplishing tasks. In this paper, an eye tracking approach was proposed as a visual analytics method to evaluate the usability of animated maps by capturing participants’ eye movement data and quantitatively analysing the accuracy (effectiveness) and response time (efficiency) of users’ task completion. In the study, a set of animated traffic maps represented by three important visual variables (colour hue, size and frequency) was used for the usability evaluation. The experimental results showed that the usability of these three visual variables for cartographic animation affects the usability of animated maps. Red, yellow, and aqua were found to convey map information more effectively than other colour hues. Size was found to be more usable than colour hues for both animated maps and static maps. Usability was not found to be proportional to the playback rate of animated maps. Furthermore, the usability of the frequency, colour hue, and size was found to be related to the display’s size. We hope that the analysis approach presented in this paper and the results of this study will be of help in the design of cartographic animation displays with better usability.

A Study on Attention Type and Shift of Task Commitment in Secondary Students’ Biological Classification - Eye-Tracking Approach

A Study on Attention Type and Shift of Task Commitment in Secondary Students’ Biological Classification - Eye-Tracking Approach

Eye-tracking analysis of skilled performance in clinical extracorporeal circulation

The manipulation of extracorporeal circulation (ECC), which is performed by perfusionists during cardiovascular surgery, is a highly sophisticated cognitive process based on visual information obtained from information sources such as ECC indicators, surgeons, an operating field, a scrub nurse, surgical instruments, displays, patients, among others. An eye-tracking approach is expected to be a powerful means of automatic and rapid analysis. This paper presents the results of a pilot study in which an eye-tracking approach was applied to the analysis of ECC operation tasks conducted during real clinical cardiovascular surgery in the operating room. Eye-tracking data on four perfusionists were recorded while they were manipulating the ECC during a series of cardiovascular surgeries. The experience of the perfusionists ranged from 2 to 26+years. Based on the data obtained, fixation-by-fixation cataloging of eye-tracking data in which each fixation was transcribed in timeline style was performed for each perfusionist. Gaze allocation tendencies during the surgeries for all four perfusionists were determined through a comparative analysis. It was noted that an expert engineer dispersed his attention more widely than did intermediate and novice perfusionists. Taking the results of the data analysis into consideration, we discuss the implications of well-skilled perfusionists' performance during the manipulation of ECC, as well as the principles that guide how eye-tracking data obtained in real surgery should be processed. This is the first study on the application of an eye-tracking approach to the analysis of ECC operation tasks to be reported in the Japanese literature.

Schematic influences of rape myth acceptance on visual information processing: An eye-tracking approach

Schematic influences of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on visual information processing were studied. After reading a short text on a rape case, students viewed a “police photograph” of the plaintiff's living room, where the rape allegedly happened, while their eye-movements were recorded. The photograph contained two myth-consistent cues, one being expected in the situation (wine bottle and glasses), the other unexpected (poster of a nude male). Results of Study 1 (N=60) showed that participants higher in RMA fixated the expected cue both earlier and less long, which may indicate hypervigilance and greater ease of processing, respectively. Higher RMA also predicted longer initial fixation of the unexpected cue. These processing differences mediated participants' verdicts and blame judgments. In Study 2 (N=30), participants' level of RMA was manipulated experimentally via social norm feedback. This manipulation significantly affected eye-movement patterns for the expected myth-consistent cue. Results support the notion that RMA actively guides visual information processing of relevant stimuli.

The use of relevance criteria during predictive judgment: An eye tracking approach

This paper reports on the findings of a user study that explored how searchers tend to fixate on information associated with different relevance criteria in the web during the relevance judgment process. The user study involved the completion of questionnaires, use of eye tracking technology, talk aloud protocols and post-search interviews. As opposed to previous studies, the present research asked participants to search for real information needs that represented different search contexts (e.g. from searches about personal interest to academic related searches). This permitted the identification of several relevance criteria that naturally occur across different search contexts and the emergence of some fixation patterns, not observed before, associated to the use of these criteria. Although the study examined participants' eye movements for both predictive and evaluative relevance judgments, this paper is focused on the findings of the predictive relevance judgment process and specifically participants' evaluation of the results presented in the search result interface of the Google search engine. It is anticipated that the findings reported in this paper could shed light on the process of predictive relevance judgment and especially on the problem of relevance criteria use through the use of eye tracking.

One dimensional image processing for eye tracking using derivative dynamic time warping

In this paper, one dimensional image processing for eye tracking approach is presented using a low cost webcam. It was found that the algorithm is resistant to illumination variation and is able to track eyes of users with and without glasses in multiple orientations. The size and location of the region of interest (ROI), which contains both eyes, is adaptive. Derivative Dynamic Time Warping (DDTW) is chosen as the classifier for this experiment since it can match patterns from one dimension data sequences with varying length. The DDTW is applied to compare distances of the area with an offline template by investigating separately, the row arrays and column arrays for eye tracking. The online one dimensional image processing for eye tracking procedure shows good accuracy and robustness when implemented at 50 frames/s on a 253 GHz Pavilion DV4 HP notebook. Key words: Eye tracking, adaptive region of interest, derivative dynamic time warping, illumination variation resistant, one dimensional image processing.