Eye Perspective Research Articles

Deep histories of the new world: Oral tradition and the fluid human mind

Abstract Focusing, in part, on the influence of Jurassic-era seas on the philosophical beliefs of the Hopi and Zuni cultures of the American Southwest, the article investigates the fluid cognitive processes of the human mind and methodically investigates the presence of historical content in works from oracy-based peoples. Formal analyses of the embedded data encoded in historical oral narratives are provided and are based on Barber and Barber’s mytho-linguistic framework. The application of Roger C. Echo-Hawk’s methodology for the assessment of narrative works that can contribute to cultural affiliation in consultations relating to the Native American Graves Protection Repatriation Act is considered as a possible model for similar change in the areas of assessing the relevance of material culture. The necessity of creating a similar critical framework for evaluations of the visual arts of ancient pre-historic era in the United States in keeping with the trend in narrative studies is discussed in support of the development of ‘period eye’ perspectives on which future objective studies may be based. The valid contexts an approximated period eye perspective can provide for more authentic replications of complex metaphorical relationships and cosmographies on the visual plane is demonstrated in the article’s final drawings.

Cyborg Agency and Individual Trauma: What Ender's Game Teaches Us about Killing in the Age of Drone Warfare

Cyborg Agency and Individual Trauma: What Ender's Game Teaches Us about Killing in the Age of Drone Warfare

Airport business interruptions: Developing and applying a scheme for the estimation of resulting cost impacts

Even short interruptions of airport operations can have severe financial impacts on the air transport industry, its users and other economic sectors. Some interruptions are limited to single airports (eg infrastructure failure, fires or severe weather events) while those forcing the closure of airspace (eg air-traffic control strikes or volcanic ash) can result in the simultaneous closure of several airports. A systematic assessment of the potential types and economic impacts of interruptions is a fundamental step for risk management towards setting up and implementing business continuity strategies and plans; however, interruptions at airports have not yet been systematically dealt with in the scientific literature. This paper aims to be a starting point towards filling this gap. First, the different types of airport closures are classified by various characteristics, such as type of damage, responsible entity and liability. Secondly, a straightforward scheme is developed for estimating the potential losses due to airport closures from both the airline and airport perspectives. Using a sample interruption scenario, this paper finds that for the airport operator, one day without any services means a loss of 88 per cent of daily revenues, which is not compensated by any noteworthy cost reductions. These results and forthcoming work in this field not only might help airports and airlines to define their needs for business interruption insurances, but also could form the basis for the assessment of the macroeconomic effects of interruptions and a quick estimation or verification of industry-specific losses from a bird's eye perspective.

The structural salience of landmarks: results from an on-line study and a virtual environment experiment

The term ‘structural salience’ refers to the characteristics of landmarks that are immediately related to navigation. One of the central aspects of this kind of salience is where a landmark is located at an intersection. Klippel and Winter (2005) developed a mathematical measure that describes the ideal position of a landmark at an intersection. In the first experiment (on-line study) we examined the four different landmark positions from a bird's-eye perspective and in the second experiment (virtual environment) from an egocentric perspective. We compare our results with Klippel and Winter's model and provide some evidence to support their assumptions empirically.

Use of post-storm images for automated tornado-borne debris path identification using texture-wavelet analysis

A rapid automatic tracking mechanism for tornado damaged location from an eagle's eye perspective could diminish economic as well as non-replenishable human losses. Japan faces a yearly average of 21 tornadoes. Automatic tracking of tornado footprints provides an immediate survey report on the location of the wind damaged area, thereby emergency aid to the injured and apposite maintenance to damaged structures can be facilitated faster. This paper introduces an efficient automatic tracking method, texture-wavelet analysis, from wind-borne debris deposits distributed around damaged building structures. It focuses on a fatal tornado that occurred in the Wakasa area of Saroma town in Hokkaido in 2006. It employs post-storm aerial imagery only, rather than the conventional pre-storm and post-storm images together. The results are compared with field investigation data.

Sustainable Development: A Bird’s Eye View

At the turn of the millennium, the world’s political leadership adopted sustainable development as a leading model for societal development. However, the terms “sustainable development”, “sustainability” and “sustainable” are sometimes over- and misused despite wide consensus about the concept’s meaning among sustainability scholars and practitioners. While the concept allows various sustainability views to co-exist, random conceptualizations which do not respect the fundamental sustainability principles undermine the concept’s objective to steer action. This lack of understanding of sustainability arguably inhibits its practical realization and a proper understanding of sustainability is urgently needed. In this paper we aim to contribute to a better understanding of sustainability by adopting a bird’s eye perspective. We review the rich contemporary literature, with a specific focus on the terminology, genesis, fundamental principles, mainstream views of sustainability, and several governing aspects. Further, using the evolving body of sustainability literature, the paper provides arguments to combat common misconceptions of sustainability.

Monitoring buried remains with a transparent 3D half bird's eye view of ground penetrating radar data in the Zeynel Bey tomb in the ancient city of Hasankeyf, Turkey

The aim of this paper is to show a new monitoring approximation for ground penetrating radar (GPR) data. The method was used to define buried archaeological remains inside and outside the Zeynel Bey tomb in Hasankeyf, an ancient city in south-eastern Turkey. The study examined whether the proposed GPR method could yield useful results at this highly restricted site, which has a maximum diameter inside the tomb of 4 m. A transparent three-dimensional (3D) half bird's eye view was constructed from a processed parallel-aligned two-dimensional GPR profile data set by using an opaque approximation instead of linear opacity. Interactive visualizations of transparent 3D sub-data volumes were conducted. The amplitude-colour scale was balanced by the amplitude range of the buried remains in a depth range, and appointed a different opaque value for this range, in order to distinguish the buried remains from one another. Therefore, the maximum amplitude values of the amplitude-colour scale were rearranged with the same colour range. This process clearly revealed buried remains in depth slices and transparent 3D data volumes. However, the transparent 3D half bird's eye views of the GPR data better revealed the remains than the depth slices of the same data. In addition, the results showed that the half bird's eye perspective was important in order to image the buried remains. Two rectangular walls were defined, one within and the other perpendicularly, in the basement structure of the Zeynel Bey tomb, and a cemetery was identified aligned in the east–west direction at the north side of the tomb. The transparent 3D half bird's eye view of the GPR data set also determined the buried walls outside the tomb. The findings of the excavation works at the Zeynel Bey tomb successfully overlapped with the new visualization results.

Confronting Moral Pluralism in Posttraditional Western Societies: Bioethics Critically Reassessed

In the face of the moral pluralism that results from the death of God and the abandonment of a God's eye perspective in secular philosophy, bioethics arose in a context that renders it essentially incapable of giving answers to substantive moral questions, such as concerning the permissibility of abortion, human embryonic stem cell research, euthanasia, etc. Indeed, it is only when bioethics understands its own limitations and those of secular moral philosophy in general can it better appreciate those tasks that it can actually usefully perform in both the clinical and academic setting. It is the task of this paper to understand and reevaluate bioethics by understanding these limits. Academic bioethicists can analyze ideas, concepts, and claims necessary to understanding the moral questions raised in health care, assessing the arguments related to these issues, and provide an understanding of the different moral perspectives on bioethical issues. In the clinical setting, bioethicists can provide legal advice, serve as experts on IRBs, mediating disputes, facilitating decision-making and risk management, and clarifying normative issues. However, understanding this is only possible when one understands the history, genesis, and foundations of bioethics and its inability to provide a resolution to postmodern moral pluralism.

New Horizons in the Evolutionary Science of the Human Family

Familial relationships cannot be properly understood outside of an evolutionary framework. Pseudoscientific and traditional modes of thought have steered us away from an accurate account of ourselves and our kin. Recent theoretical and empirical advances in the evolutionary sciences, such as the theories of inclusive fitness, parental investment, and parent-offspring conflict, have aided our understanding of familial conflict and cooperation. We suggest that a gene's eye perspective of human families can likewise illuminate much of human psychology and behavior by contrasting individual interests with genetic interests. Furthermore, theoretical and empirical work on genetic imprinting and extended phenotypic action-at-a-distance have unveiled the extent to which co-evolutionary arms races and manipulation lie at the heart of familial interactions and psychological disorders. We posit that human cultural trends and morals can ultimately be grounded on an evolutionary foundation: not only do human laws and institutions reflect group-level manifestations of gene-level cooperative adaptations, but also they may reflect gene-level manipulative adaptations. An awareness of evolutionary dynamics can advance human well-being and unveil the hidden mechanisms beneath all human and nonhuman relationships.

MORAL OBLIGATION AFTER THE DEATH OF GOD: CRITICAL REFLECTIONS ON CONCERNS FROM IMMANUEL KANT, G. W. F. HEGEL, AND ELIZABETH ANSCOMBE

AbstractOnce God is no longer recognized as the ground and the enforcer of morality, the character and force of morality undergoes a significant change, a point made by G.E.M. Anscombe in her observation that without God the significance of morality is changed, as the word criminal would be changed if there were no criminal law and criminal courts. There is no longer in principle a God's-eye perspective from which one can envisage setting moral pluralism aside. In addition, it becomes impossible to show that morality should always trump concerns of prudence, concerns for one's own non-moral interests and the interests of those to whom one is close. Immanuel Kant's attempt to maintain the unity of morality and the force of moral obligation by invoking the idea of God and the postulates of pure practical reason (i.e., God and immortality) are explored and assessed. Hegel's reconstruction of the status of moral obligation is also examined, given his attempt to eschew Kant's thing-in-itself, as well as Kant's at least possible transcendent God. Severed from any metaphysical anchor, morality gains a contingent content from socio-historical context and its enforcement from the state. Hegel's disengagement from a transcendent God marks a watershed in the place of God in philosophical reflections regarding the status of moral obligations on the European continent. Anscombe is vindicated. Absent the presence of God, there is an important change in the force of moral obligation.

Frank Lloyd Wright, Darwin D. Martin, and the Whittier-Rosenwald School for Hampton Institute

..;; •... / · ~ ...:.ll ARRIS 20 § VoLUME 21 § 2010 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, DARWIN D. MARTIN' AND THE WHITTIER-RosENWALD ScHooL FOR HAMPTON INSTITUTE JACKQUINAN In 1928 Frank Lloyd Wright submitted a design for a new building for the Whittier primary school at Hampton Institute in Hampton, Virginia (Figures 1 and 2). Following more than a year of deliberation, Wright's design was rejected and subsequently drifted from view except for its appearance in two books on Wright from the 1980s in which it is identified as "The Rosenwald Negro Children's School, La Jolla, California."1 Owing to Wright's long and impressive record of innovative designs for a wide variety of building types, including buildings for education, this article will explore the matter further in an attempt to answer the following questions: What circumstances led Wright to submit a design to the Hampton Institute ? Why was it identified with Julius Rosenwald, the president of the Sears Roebuck Company in Chicago ? Why was it rejected? And finally, how does this design stand up to critical assessment? First it is necessary to consider the setting of the commission and the principal individuals involved. FIGURE 1 (LEFT TOP) Frank Lloyd Wright, the Whittier-Rosenwald School at Hampton Institute, Hampton, Virginia, 1928, bird's-eye perspective #1. (Frank Lloyd Wrighr Foundacion # 2904.001, Drawings of Frank Lloyd Wright are copyrighr © 2010, Frank Lloyd Wrighr Foundarion . Scotrsdale. Arizona) FIGURE 2 (LEFT BOTTOM) Frank Lloyd Wright, the Whittier-Rosenwald School at Hampton Institute, Hampton, Virginia, 1928, bird's-eye perspective #2. (Reproduced from rhe DonJld D. Walker Collecrion, Prinrs and PhorogrJphs Division, Library of Congress, with permission of rhe Frank Lloyd Wrighr Foundadon. Drawings oF Frank Lloyd Wright ,ue copyrigln © 1957, 20 I0. Frank Lloyd Wrighc Foundation, Scorrsdale, Arizona) VoLUME 21 2010 § ARRIS 2 I JACKQUINAN HAMPTON INSTITUTE The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (Figure 3), founded in 1868, was one of the more than 100 schools, institutes, and colleges that sprang up across the South for the education of young African American men and women in the aftermath of the Civil War.2 Situated upon an abandoned plantation site on a peninsula formed by the confluence of the James and York Rivers at Chesapeake Bay, Hampton offered academic subjects and training in such practical skills as weaving, printing, shoe-making, carpentry, machine operation, and scientific farming . As a normal school, however, the practice of the teaching of young children was especially important. Toward that end, the poet John Greenleaf Whittier, a Quaker and abolitionist from Massachusetts, endowed Hampton's Whittier School. Hampton Institute , funded by a combination of Virginia's Morrill Land Grant Act monies and donations from wealthy, northern liberals and abolitionists, featured impressive buildings by J. Cleveland Cady of New York; Alexander Trowbridge of Washington; and Richard Morris Hunt, also of New York, whose Virginia Hall of 1874 (Figure 4) lends a distinctive Ruskinian ruggedness to the waterfront campus.3 DARWIN MARTIN In 1927 it came to the attention of Darwin Martin, a wealthy businessman and philanthropist in Buffalo, New York, with ties to the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, the Voorhees Industrial Institute in Denmark, South Carolina, and the Hampton Institute, that the original Whittier School building at Hampton was to be replaced by a new structure.4 Martin, an astute dealmaker, recognized an opportunity to unite three entities of particular importance to him-his long-term interest in educational opportuARRIS 22 ~ VoLUME 21 ~ 2010 nities for young African Americans, his relationship with Julius Rosenwald, President of the Sears Roebuck Company, and his patronage of the prominent American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright. Martin's role in Wright's involvement at Hampton had deep roots. Martin began his career in business in 1879 at the age of thirteen selling Larkin Company soap door to door in the New York City area and in Boston for $5 per week. However, based upon his work ethic and a prodigiously retentive memory, John D. Larkin, the president of the company, invited Martin to Buffalo and made him the Larkin Company bookkeeper the following year. Through intensive study, obsessive dedication to work, and the invention of a card file system essential to the expansion of the Larkin Company into...

Improving the Effectiveness of Wayshowing for America's Byways Using Perspective of a Visitor's Eye

Byway providers—the local staff, organization leaders, and volunteers who sustain a highway's designation as one of America's byways—face challenges of overcoming habituated ways of viewing their byways, especially when these providers offer wayshowing elements of safe travel such as maps, guide signs, directions, and information about traveler services and amenities so that first-time byway travelers can have successful and rewarding byway experiences. The locally based and geographically rich knowledge that byway providers possess is often much more complete than the relatively vague or nonexistent knowledge held by byway travelers and visitors. Byway providers need their intimate geographic knowledge to effectively conserve, plan, promote, and interpret the intrinsic resources of a byway. However, their in-depth knowledge shaped by frequent, habitual experience on their byway can hinder them in developing effective wayshowing materials aimed at assisting nonlocal travelers because the perspective of seeing their byway through a first-time visitor's eye is a difficult one to refocus. Although technical instructions and materials describing how byway providers should assess their guidance systems are valuable, the assessment process often is incomplete if byway providers fail to see apparent needs from a nonlocal traveler's perspective. The America's Byways Resource Center is exploring theoretical models that make concepts about the visitor's experience more explicit and conducting awareness-building exercises designed to help byway providers take more of a visitor's eye perspective. Preliminary assessments of this initiative indicate productive and positive results.

Incomplete Data in Clinical Studies: Analysis, Sensitivity, and Sensitivity Analysis

Statistical analysis often extends beyond the data available. This is especially true when data are incompletely recorded because ad hoc as well as model-based approaches are rooted not only in the observed data and the mechanism governing missingness, but also in the unobserved given the observed data. Other instances of this phenomenon include but are not limited to censored time-to-event data, random effects models, and latent class approaches. One needs to be aware of: (1) changes in results and intuition relative to complete-data analysis; (2) the assumptions under which such approaches are valid; (3) the sensitivities implied by departures; and (4) in response to these, what sensitivity analysis avenues are available. This article provides a bird’s-eye perspective on these. Some of the developments are illustrated using data from a clinical trial in onychomycosis.

The morphosyntax of varieties of English worldwide: A quantitative perspective

What are the large-scale patterns and generalizations that emerge when investigating morphosyntactic variation in World Englishes from a bird’s eye perspective? To address this question, this study draws on the questionnaire-based morphosyntactic database of the Handbook of Varieties of English, utilizing a number of quantitative analysis techniques (frequency and correlation measures, multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and principal component analysis). We demonstrate (i) that the database yields a number of generalizations and implicational tendencies relating to vernacular angloversals and universals of New Englishes, (ii) that there is a surprisingly consistent typological division between English L1 vernaculars, on the one hand, and English-based pidgins and creoles on the other hand, and (iii) that World Englishes can, on aggregate, be seen to vary along two major dimensions which we interpret as being indicative of morphosyntactic complexity and analyticity. In conclusion, we offer that the Handbook’s morphosyntactic database presents some interesting methodological challenges to dialectology and dialectometry.

Baptism of Fire: The Second Battle of Ypres and the Forging of Canada, April 1915 (review)

Reviewed by: Baptism of Fire: The Second Battle of Ypres and the Forging of Canada, April 1915 Jeff Keshen Baptism of Fire: The Second Battle of Ypres and the Forging of Canada, April 1915. Nathan M. Greenfield. Toronto: HarperCollins, 2007. Pp. 400, $34.95 Canadians today invariably point to the capture of Vimy Ridge, in April 1917, as the nation's most significant accomplishment during the First World War. Although typically knowing few of its details, or debates as to its relative importance to the Allied cause, the belief remains widespread among Canadians (though with good reason) that the victory at Vimy was a magnificent feat of arms and a milestone in the country's coming of age. The second Battle of Ypres, fought two years earlier, had also long held such iconic status. Reflecting that spirit, in Baptism of Fire historian Nathan Greenfield conveys how green Canadian troops, refusing to yield to more numerous enemies and the first use of poison gas during the war, 'saved the day' by preventing a major German breakthrough that could have changed the course of the Great War. Greenfield's goal is to provide a straightforward and comprehensive account of this momentous clash. To do so, he mined battalion and personal war diaries, orders and plans, letters and newspapers, and secondary literature touching upon this battle. Although the themes he advances are well known to historians and his approach harks back to a traditional 'shot and shell' genre, he accomplishes a remarkable feat of historical reconstruction by detailing – often hour by hour – five days of intense fighting that involved scores of battalions. Much of that story is presented from the worm's eye perspective, as Greenfield wants readers to understand the hardships, sacrifices, and many – but now typically long forgotten – acts of heroism by Canadians on the battlefield. Although the details he presents can overwhelm at points, readers are rewarded with a deep understanding of why events unfolded as they did and the enormity of what untested Canadian troops accomplished. Greenfield shows how even the most carefully constructed plans were frequently swept aside by the sheer chaos of battle, that revamped tactics were often based upon incomplete information as communications regularly broke down, and that those in the thick of things – in the fog of war – knew virtually nothing beyond their immediate surroundings. He deftly dispels many shibboleths that still resonate about the First World War, such as by showing that commanders, though making mistakes, were by no means all bumbling Colonel Blimps; that even at this early stage of the conflict, men did not always slowly advance in linear, close, and suicidal formations; and that battle [End Page 423] exhaustion, or shell shock, while certainly evident, incapacitated only a minority of men. A gifted storyteller, he often provides poignant vignettes, like that of a woman carrying the headless corpse of her baby to symbolize the utter sorrow and desperation among refugees fleeing from Ypres. The photographs he includes enrich the story, such as that juxtaposing pre- and post-battle Ypres, and maps that he uses to preface most chapters help the reader better understand the course of battle. While succeeding in piecing together myriad details to produce a compelling story, Greenfield commits a couple of noteworthy factual errors, such as presenting 28 August 1914 as the beginning of the war, and 66,000 casualties as Canada's total losses in the First World War. Greenfield's strong focus on the human costs the conflict – like the devastation of several units and the grisly manner in which many men met their death – arguably glosses over the fact that two-thirds of the Canadians who participated in this clash did not become casualties. More attention could have been devoted to the home front than the brief discussion in the book's last ten pages on the national pride generated by Canada's role in halting this German advance. Greenfield provides only scant information and assessment of critically important supporting military roles, such as the ability of ordinance services to adequately supply troops at Ypres and the medical services in coping with thousands of casualties, including many suffering from the gruesome and often deadly effects...

Leonardo’s Representational Technique for Centrally-Planned Temples

Leonardo invented a new technique of representation which combines the building plan and a bird’s-eye perspective of the whole into a single system. Bird’s eye perspective may have developed out of cavalier perspective, and instances pre-dating Leonardo can be found, but not used in the same way as he employed it. Though not pre-axonometric, Leonardo took advantage of axonometric representation’s capacity to construct/deconstruct an object into its component parts in order to clarify fitting and functioning. This paper investigates the originality of the technique and special relationship with his research on centrally-planned churches, while examining it in the context of contemporary developments and architects.

Nominal and real wage flexibility in EMU

Both common macroeconomic shocks and country-specific developments have subjected the flexibility of wage setting mechanisms in the euro area to a stress test in recent years. Against this background, this paper takes a fresh look at wage flexibility in EMU and attempts to draw a few lessons from the experience of the early years. First, we set the stage for the analysis by providing a brief description of the stylised facts regarding nominal and real wage and unit labour cost developments in the euro area over the recent business cycle. Then, the paper presents an empirical assessment of wage inertia based on new econometric estimates of a Phillips-curve type wage equation across euro area countries and offers an interpretation of the main findings with respect to nominal and real wage flexibility. Finally, we investigate the cyclical responsiveness of relative competitive positions among euro area countries. We conclude that from a bird’s eye perspective euro area wage and labour cost dynamics have been quite benign in the past couple of years. However, our estimates suggest that persistent cross-country differences in wage and labour cost developments have not always reflected warranted adjustment needs; they are rather indicative of an eventually insufficient degree of nominal and real wage flexibility in the euro area.

Can Moral Obligations Be Empirically Discovered?

hese are good days for empirically minded philosophy .It is now common tosee philosophers cite laboratory studies in support of their theories , and agrowing number of philosophers are conducting their own psychological experi-ments .F rom a wormOs eye perspective ,it looks a little bit like there is a method-ological revolution taking place .Gone are the days when philosophers had to readpsychology journals covered in discrete bindings so as to hide a perverse interest inthe latest sexy results .At least that is true in most areas of philosophy .Lately ,themethodological revolution has been gaining ground in ethics . Philosophers nowroutinely site the burgeoning empirical literature on moral judgment. T he majorityof this work has been descriptive in nature .Psychology and neuroscience are beingused to determine what goes on in peopleOs heads when they decide that somethingis morally right or morally wrong .T raditionally minded ethicists continue to feelinsulated from the onslaught of empirical moral psychology .Ethics has long beenin the business of telling us how we ought to behave ,rather than merely describinghow we do behave .Such normative claims appear to have a kind of immunity toempirical investigation. Psychology can reveal what we morally detest, but itcannot reveal what we should detest. Or so it would seem. In this chapter ,I wantto explore this supposition and argue that empirical methods can actually shedlight on what we ought to do .Along the way ,I will also make some other contro-versial claims .I will say that morality has an emotional basis ,and I will endorse aform of relativism. Of course ,such conjectures require much more discussion thanI can of fer here .My arguments will be preliminary ,and I will content myself withhaving shown how ,in principle ,one might go about trying to discover obligationsMidwest Studies in Philosophy , XXXI (2007)© 2007 Copyright T he A uthorsJournal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing ,Inc .271

Political Path Dependency in Practice: the Takeover Directive

Unlike much that has been written about the European takeover directive, where the focus has been on the technicalities of its provisions, and its implementation in the laws of the Member States, this paper looks at the directive from a bird's-eye perspective before exploring the three issues set below: Firstly, taking the implied and express premises of the directive as read, the paper assesses the directive on its own terms. Taking a step back, the paper then considers whether these same premises form a sound basis for legislative action. Finally, an even bigger step back is taken and the directive's overall perspective is considered. The issue that is discussed then is whether this perspective, which forms the basis of the directive's premises and provisions, is sufficiently wide and whether the directive's scope is sufficiently all-encompassing. The discussion of these three issues shows that the takeover directive is an example of political path dependency in practice, both in the narrow and in the wider senses of the term. A call for a comprehensive and thorough debate is made.

Putting Clinical Process into Image: A Method for Visual Representation of Music Therapy Sessions

ABSTRACT: In many instances, music therapists are called upon to analyze their own work or to present it to others. However, the temporality and complexity of clinical-musical events generates challenging difficulties in providing a quick overview of a single session. In the present paper, a method to visually map the events that occur in music therapy sessions is proposed, following in the footsteps of authors who have suggested graphical notation as a possible solution to the problem. The Music-therapy Analyzing Partitura (MAP) is used by the therapist to describe what happened in a session and is shared with colleagues who may read and discuss it. The establishment of a standard code is proposed, which is based on known principles of music notation and new simply designed symbols and icons. Two sessions with a group are described and the advantages and disadvantages of the MAP are discussed. The methods used by therapists and researchers to describe and analyze work have received considerable attention in music therapy literature (e.g., Bergstrom-Nielsen, 1993; Bruscia, 2001; Forinash, 2000; Forinash & Gonzalez, 1989; Langenberg, Frommer, & Tress, 1993; Lee, 2000; McFerran & Wigram, 2005; Smeijsters & Storm, 1996). The clinical sound that evolves from a single session is usually extremely complex and difficult to comprehend and analyze. Some of the complications include the following: (a) that music in therapy is not necessarily organized in a conventional form; (b) that words might coincide with the music in varying ways; and (c) that the music of the therapist is usually intertwined with the client's music, which presents great complexity in defining the relationship between them. These problems significantly increase when one considers describing or analyzing a session of group music therapy that involves several lines of musical communication or when one is interested in comparing different sessions. One major reason for the complexity in grasping auditory information, including improvisations, speech, and recorded music, is that this information is spread over time. Human memory and perception make it difficult to perceive a session's worth of information from a bird's-eye perspective. A verbal description of what occurred in a session, the method frequently used by therapists, is also problematic in this sense because the experience of reading is spread over time as well. Another major problem with verbal accounts of sessions is that they are not arts-based in form so they reduce the holistic, arts-centered experience of the session to a linear description. One possible solution to this problem is to translate the auditory information into a visual format, creating a musicalclinical map (Bergstrom-Nielsen, 1993). In contrast to auditory information, visual information, such as graphs and pictures, is spread over space but remains unchanged over time. If the mapping system is simple enough, it can provide an overview of events at a glance. In the present study, the establishment of a standard method to visually map sessions in music therapy is suggested. To clearly represent the complexity of events, a framework that integrated ideas from the Western musical notation system, from former music therapy notators, and from cartography (i.e., geographical mapping) is proposed. The principles of Western musical notation and general aspects of cartography are discussed. Several approaches proposed by earlier authors to visually represent material in music therapy are also reviewed. Next, the Music-therapy Analyzing Partifura' (MAP) in the context of a group session is demonstrated and its basic characteristics are explained. Finally, the functions of the MAP and further developments for using such a format are presented. Musical Notation Though many notation systems were invented in the past 4000 years, only a few can be considered to be monomial (i. …