Extrusion Temperature Research Articles

Evaluating the performance of Bi58Sn42 mold produced by material extrusion additive manufacturing system for agile manufacturing

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to produce a low-cost sheet metal forming mold made from the low melting point Bi58Sn42 (bismuth) alloy by using an open-source desktop-type material extrusion additive manufacturing system and to evaluate the performance of the additively manufactured mold for low volume sheet metal forming. Thus, it was aimed to develop a fast and inexpensive die tooling methodology for low-volume batch production.Design/methodology/approachInitially, the three-dimensional printing experiments were performed to produce the sheet metal forming mold. The encountered problems during the performed three-dimensional printing experiments were analyzed. Accordingly, both tunings in process parameters (extrusion temperature, extrusion multiplier, printing speed, infill percentage, etc.) and customizations on the extruder head of the available material extrusion additive manufacturing system were made to print the Bi58Sn42 alloy properly. Subsequently, the performance of the additively manufactured mold was evaluated according to the dimensional change that occurred on it during the performed pressing operations.FindingsResults showed that the additively manufactured mold was rigid enough and proved to have sufficient strength in sheet metal forming operations for low-volume production.Originality/valueAlternative mold production was carried out using open-source material extrusion system for low volume sheet metal part production. Thus, cost effective solution was presented for agile manufacturing.

Process–Property Correlation in Sustainable Printing Extrusion of Bio-Based Filaments

This study investigated the effect of two critical variables for environmental process sustainability, i.e., extruder temperature and printing rate, on thermomechanical performance and accuracy in overall sample sizes, when printing bio-based materials. In this context, 3D specimens produced from basic polylactide (n-PLA) and wood-filled PLA polymer (f-PLA) were realized using extrusion-based additive manufacturing technology (MEX) by varying the nozzle temperatures (200 °C, 210 °C, and 220 °C) and speed (from 70 mm/s to 130 mm/s). Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was carried out on the produced specimens, providing information on changes in storage modulus at testing temperature of 30 °C (E′30) and glass transition temperature (Tg) for each printing condition. Measurements of sample sizes allowed for printing precision considerations as a function of processing temperature and speed. The results revealed similar trends in E′30 changes in printed specimens at a fixed extruder temperature as a function of printing speed for n-PLA and f-PLA. Infrared spectroscopy was performed on printed samples and unextruded material to attest potential material degradation under various operating conditions. Finally, images of sample surface allowed to verify the homogeneity of the diameter of the extruded material, and the layer–layer contact at the interface.

Rheological Changes in Bio-Based Filaments Induced by Extrusion-Based 3D Printing Process.

In this work, the authors investigated the impact of extrusion-based printing process on the structural characteristics of bio-based resins through rheological measurements. Two commercially available filaments made from unfilled and wood-filled polylactide (PLA) polymers were considered. Three-dimensional specimens were prepared by printing these filaments under various operating conditions, i.e., changing the extruder temperature and printing rate, and examined using time sweep tests. Specific cycle rheological testing was conducted on pelletized filaments to simulate temperature changes in the printing process. The rheological characteristics of unprocessed materials, in terms of storage (G') and loss (G″) moduli, were found to be slightly affected by temperature changes. For a pure polymer, the G' slope at a low frequency decreased over time, showing that the polymer chains evolved from a higher to a lower molecular weight. For wood-filled materials, the G' slope rose over the testing time, emphasizing the formation of a percolated network of structured filler within the matrix. On the other side, the rheological parameters of both materials were strongly impacted by the printing extrusion and the related conditions. At lower nozzle temperatures (200 °C), by decreasing the printing speed, the G' and G″ curves became increasingly different with respect to unprocessed resin; whereas at higher nozzle temperatures (220 °C), the influence of the printing speed was insignificant, and all curves (albeit distant from those of unprocessed matrix) mainly overlapped. Considerations on degradation kinetics of both materials during the printing process were also provided by fitting experimental data of complex viscosity with linear correlation over time.

An innovative approach for overcoming challenges in the stacked extrusion forming of Mg/Al composite plates

This study successfully produced Mg/Al composite plates with Cu transition layer, thus overcoming the limitations of traditional stacked extrusion methods in achieving satisfactory bonding of Mg/Al laminates. The relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties of composite plates under three extrusion temperatures was revealed, and the deformation process and failure modes of composite plates were investigated. Microstructure observations revealed that the Cu layer exhibited a discontinuous distribution characteristic, and its thicker area effectively impeded the diffusion of Mg and Al elements, thus inhibiting the formation of Mg-Al intermetallic compounds (IMCs). The extrusion temperature did not significantly affect the distribution of the precipitates and texture in the Mg/Al layers. The grain size of the Mg layer showed a growing tendency with rising extrusion temperature, while that of the Al layer remained relatively constant. Mechanical results indicated that the strength of the composite plates decreased as the extrusion temperature increased, which was attributed to the weakening of fine grain strengthening in the Mg layer and dislocation strengthening in the Al layer. Additionally, higher extrusion temperature markedly reduced the elongation of the composite plate, potentially due to accelerated element diffusion at the interface and the discontinuous distribution of the Cu layer, resulting in significant enrichment of IMCs. The Mg-Cu IMCs accumulated and formed in the thicker Cu layer areas, along with Mg-Al IMCs formed in the weaker Cu layer areas, served as crack sources, resulting in cracking of the composite plate during the tensile and eventual failure.

The enhanced mechanical properties in rapid solidification technology al alloy

Abstract As one of the most important alloys of Al-Mg-Si series aluminum alloys, 5083 aluminum alloy is widely used in mechanical parts, structural engineering, modern construction, transportation, and other fields. The objective of the present study is to explore the feasibility of producing 5083 Al alloy ribbons with increased mechanical properties via rapid solidification technology, namely single-roll melt spinning. Metallography, X-ray diffraction, hardness, and tensile tests are used to study and compare the microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminum alloy hot extruded rods and explore the different extrusion temperatures of aluminum alloy. Our results show that the hot-extrusion process (300°C, 350°C, 400°C) is used to process the ultra-fine grain ribbon into bars that can be applied to structural parts. The 5083 alloy bar obtains the best mechanical properties under the 350°C extrusion process, in which the tensile strength is up to 678 MPa and the hardness reaches 118 HV.

Unveiling the impact of short fibre reinforcement and extrusion properties on microstructure of 3D printed polycarbonate composites

In the evolving realm of additive manufacturing, this study investigates the microstructural and mechanical implications of short fibre reinforcement within Polycarbonate (PC) composites fabricated via material extrusion (MEX). The research specifically examines the roles of extrusion temperature, extrusion multiplier and fibre content on void content and fibre alignment, with a focus on their influence on inter-bead strength and overall print quality. Through a combination of high-resolution micro-CT scanning and mechanical testing, the study reveals that an increase in the extrusion multiplier significantly enhances fibre-bridging up to 47 % and inter-bead adhesion up to 237 % depending on the fibre content. It also traces an optimal fibre content threshold that maximizes benefits of fibre bridging, thereby bolstering the mechanical properties of the material. The comprehensive analysis demonstrates that precise control over the extrusion parameters as well as filament quality are crucial for exploiting the full potential of fibre reinforcement in 3D printed structures. This research advances our understanding of MEX in fabricating short fibre-reinforced composites, offering novel insights for tailoring material properties to meet the demands of high-performance applications.

Fabrication of one-dimensional textured Si3N4-based ceramics with high hardness and toughness by low temperature hot extrusion

Aiming to achieve silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramics with high hardness and high toughness, one-dimensional textured Si3N4-based ceramics, with and without 0.5 vol% ZrB2 additive, were prepared using spark plasma sintering combined with hot extrusion at temperatures of 1600 °C and 1800 °C. One-dimensional texture (fI = 0.89) was achieved at a hot extrusion temperature of 1600 °C for the Si3N4 ceramic with the introduction of 0.5 vol% ZrB2. The fracture toughness (7.49 ± 0.47 MPa m1/2) closely approached that of the Si3N4 sample processed at the hot extrusion temperature of 1800 °C (7.95 ± 0.27 MPa m1/2), while the hardness (18.55 ± 0.18 GPa) was significantly higher than that of the Si3N4 sample processed at a hot extrusion temperature of 1800 °C (16.48 ± 0.20 GPa). It was demonstrated that one-dimensional textured Si3N4-based ceramics with high hardness and toughness can be prepared by the introduction of ZrB2 combined with low temperature hot extrusion.

Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System-Based Predictive Modeling of Mechanical Properties in Additive Manufacturing

Predicting the mechanical properties of Additive Manufacturing (AM) parts is a complex task due to the intricate nature of the manufacturing processes. This study presents a novel application of the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) to predict the mechanical properties of PLA specimens produced using Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). The ANFIS model integrates the strengths of neural networks and fuzzy logic to establish a mapping between the inputs and the output mechanical properties, specifically maximum stress, strain, and Young’s modulus. Experimental data were collected from three-point bending tests conducted on FFF samples fabricated from PLA material with different manufacturing parameters, such as infill pattern, infill, layer thickness, printing speed, extruder and bed temperature, printing orientation (along each axis and twist angle), and raster angle. These data were used to train, check, and validate the ANFIS model. The results reveal that the proposed predictive model can effectively predict the mechanical properties of FFF-printed PLA samples, demonstrating its potential for broader applications across various AM technologies and materials, ultimately enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the AM fabrication process.

Effect of Extrusion Temperature on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and In Vitro Corrosion Behavior of a Biodegradable Mg-Zn-Ca-Mn-Sn Alloy

Effect of Extrusion Temperature on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and In Vitro Corrosion Behavior of a Biodegradable Mg-Zn-Ca-Mn-Sn Alloy

Research on AZ31 magnesium alloy tee joint tube with lateral hole by hot extrusion forming with sand mandrel limited by stainless steel gasket

As one of the lightest metals in the world, magnesium alloy can be used to reduce weight and save energy. Magnesium alloy tubes with different shapes can also further direct the transportation of fluid in this light weight. But the tee joint tube is difficult formed because of the complex shapes. In this paper, magnesium alloy tube is applied to form tee joint tube with sand mandrel. During the deformation, the magnesium alloy tube is driven by the sand mandrel pressed by the push. Different from traditional extruding with full tubes without hole on the sidewall, some tube with holes on the sidewalls are also used in the extrusion. All the key parameters such as extrusion depth, temperature, tube length, hole size, and hole location are discussed in both simulations and experiments. After the extrusion results are obtained, the microhardness and microstructures are observed to explain the promotion of the mechanical properties. Based on the results received from both simulations and experiments, deeper extrusion depth, higher temperature, shorter length of tube, larger size of the hole, and the higher location of the hole influence positively on forming results. No matter there are holes or not on the sidewalls, the errors between the results in simulation and experiment are small. Also the simulation and experiment results can be used to investigate the shape of tee joint tubes. The surface quality can be also measured to prove the surfaces in extrusion with sand mandrel acceptable. A novel strategy to sand mandrel extrusion of magnesium alloy tee joint tube by tube with holes on sidewall is provided.

Reduction of antinutrients and off-flavour in kidney bean flour by acidic and alkaline reactive extrusion

The presence of antinutrients and undesirable flavours in kidney bean flour poses challenges to consumer acceptance. Although extrusion can mitigate antinutrients to some extent, its impact on reducing beany flavour in bean flour remains underexplored. This study investigated the effects of injecting acetic acid or sodium carbonate solutions at three concentration levels (0.05, 0.1, 0.15 mol/L), in conjunction with three temperature profiles (40/60/80/80/90, 40/60/80/90/110, 50/70/90/110/130 °C) and two feed moisture levels (25, 30 %), on the removal of antinutrients (condensed tannins, trypsin inhibitor activity, phytic acid, raffinose family oligosaccharides) and reduction of volatile compounds that contribute to beany flavour in whole kidney bean flour. The results showed that all concentrations of acetic acid and sodium carbonate solutions effectively reduced condensed tannins compared to water, especially at 130 °C extrusion temperature. Introducing acetic acid and sodium carbonate solutions at a concentration of 0.15 mol/L led to 72 and 90 % reduction of total raffinose family oligosaccharide content, respectively, in contrast to the 17 % reduction observed with water alone. The incorporation of sodium carbonate solution reduced the total volatile compounds by 45–58 % as compared with water (23–33 %) and acetic acid (11–27 %). This reduction was primarily due to the reduction of aldehydes, alcohols, and aromatic hydrocarbons. These results indicate that injecting sodium carbonate solution during extrusion can effectively reduce antinutrients and beany flavour compounds in kidney bean flour.

Unravelling the effects of extrusion and drying temperatures on the radical scavenging capacity of aquafeeds supplemented with mango and pineapple by-products

Antioxidant supplementation of aquafeeds with natural sources is a current research trend within the context of a circular economy. However, natural antioxidants are highly vulnerable to thermal conditions during feed manufacturing, particularly during extrusion and drying. This study examines the impact of extrusion and drying temperatures on the antioxidant properties of aquafeeds supplemented with natural antioxidants from mango and pineapple peels. A control dietary mixture and two dietary mixtures with 2 % inclusion of either mango (M) or pineapple (P) peel flour were subjected to different combinations of extrusion temperatures (110 °C, -H vs 25 °C - C) and drying temperatures (60 °C vs 35 °C). Ingredients, manufacturing process intermediate stages, and final diets were analysed for their natural antioxidant composition (vitamins, carotenoids, free and fibre-bound phenolic compounds) and antioxidant capacity via the DPPH+, ABTS•+ and ORAC assays, the latter of which is the most representative for biological models. Results show that incorporating 2 % of either pineapple or mango peel flour increases the antioxidant content and capacity of aquafeeds compared to a control diet subjected to the same manufacturing conditions. Phenolic compounds were more abundant and resistant to the feed manufacturing process than vitamins and carotenoids. Specifically, ORAC results for free and fibre-bound extracts in diet PH-60 (1674.3 and 1216.2 mg TE 100 g DM−1, respectively) were significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the control CH-60 (694.8 and 422.8, respectively). Moreover, free extracts from diet PC-60 (1312.0 mg TE 100 g DM−1) and fibre-bound extracts from diets MH-60 and PH-35 (719.2 and 871.1 mg TE 100 g DM−1, respectively) were also significantly higher than the control (P < 0.001). A PCA analysis showed that pineapple diets with hot extrusion, as well as the mango diet with hot extrusion and hot drying, are more closely associated with higher antioxidant capacity in both free and bound extracts. Overall, fruit peel flours show promise as antioxidant supplements for mitigating oxidation in aquafeeds.

Fused Deposition Modelling Approach in Recycled Polypropylene/Aluminum Powder Composites for Sustainable Development

Polypropylene (PP) is a versatile and widely used thermoplastic polymer that has found its way into various aspects from packaging materials and consumer products to automotive components and industrial applications. However, this widespread use of polypropylene also presents a significant challenge in the disposal of polypropylene waste and its durability aspects. So, the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique arises as compiling outcomes for recycling discarded PP waste to create functional products. The properties of FDM components produced from recycled polypropylene (r-PP) are notably inferior to those of virgin PP FDM counterparts. Hence, it becomes imperative to comprehend the substantial alterations that r-PP undergoes during successive extrusion processes, including chain scission, alterations in viscosity, and reductions in breaking strength. The incorporation of additives has emerged as a promising solution to enhance the performance of r-PP. In this context, the present study explores the development of a novel composite material by blending r-PP with aluminum powder. The combination of these materials leverages the sustainability benefits of r-PP and the excellent thermal and mechanical properties of aluminum, making it a promising candidate for a wide range of applications. The tensile results show a significant increase in Young’s modulus for pre-heat treated composite specimen at 214 ℃ extrusion temperature. The SEM fractrographic analysis confirms the homogenized distribution after pre-heat treatments. XRD results analyzed the degree of crystallinity in the composite specimens.

Effect of Extrusion Temperature on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Mg–Al–Zn Alloy Prepared by Solid‐State Recycling of Mixed Waste Chips

The recycled Mg–Al–Zn alloys are successfully fabricated through solid‐state recycling of mixed waste chips, including cold pressing and hot extrusion. The effects of extrusion temperature on the microstructure evolution, slip mode, tensile properties, and hardness are studied. The homogeneous fine dynamic recrystallization (DRXed) grains with an average grain size of less than 13.1 μm can be obtained at four different extrusion temperatures (250, 300, 350, and 400 °C). The average grain size of the DRXed grains continuously increases with the rising extrusion temperature. However, the yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and elongation to failure (EL) of the recycled alloys increase first and then decrease. The recycled Mg–Al–Zn alloys at 350 °C demonstrate excellent mechanical properties with the YS of 134.6 MPa, UTS of 286.2 MPa, EL of 7.4%, and Vickers hardness of 75.2 HV, respectively. In addition, the slip mode is transformed from the previous basal slip to the coactivation of multiple slips composed of the basal slip, prismatic slip, and pyramidal slip with the rising extrusion temperature.

Achieving High Strength-Ductility Synergy in Low-Alloyed Mg-Li-Er Extrusion Alloys via Tailoring Bimodal-Grained Structure.

Low-alloyed Mg-Li-Er alloys were developed in this study and a bimodal-grained structure was obtained by varying the trace Er content and extrusion temperature. The alloys displayed a good strength-ductility synergy, i.e., a tensile yield strength (TYS) of 270 MPa and an elongation (EL) of 19.1%. Microstructural characterization revealed that the formation of numerous submicron Mg24Er5 particles favored a high density of low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) inside the deformed grains and inhibited dynamic recrystallization (DRX). The resultant coarse unDRXed grains with a strong basal texture and considerable LAGBs, together with the fine DRXed grains, contributed to the high strength-ductility synergy.

A mechanistic investigation into combined influences of NaCl and extrusion temperature on fibrous structures of high-moisture textured yeast protein

NaCl and extrusion temperature have an important influence on the qualities of high-moisture textured proteins, but the influence mechanism is still unclear. Therefore, this study prepared high-moisture textured yeast protein (HMTYP) with different NaCl contents (0%–4%) under different extrusion temperatures (170 °C, 180 °C) and characterized their physicochemical properties. The results showed that the HMTYP containing 1% and 2% NaCl prepared at 180 °C contained a strong fibrous structure. The possible mechanism was as follows: YP could not be sufficiently melted at 170 °C after adding NaCl, causing a decrease in the structural strength; however, at 180 °C, YP still reached a fully molten state even though 1%–2% NaCl was added. After YP sufficiently melted, NaCl enhanced the cross-linking and aggregation of proteins during cooling, which improved the textural properties of HMTYP. Accordingly, NaCl and extrusion temperature could combine to adjust the fibrous structure and texture of HMTYP.

Process window and mechanical properties for thin magnesium- and zinc-wires in dieless wire drawing

Due to their biodegradable properties, magnesium- and zinc-based alloys are in the focus of interest for numerous medical applications, e.g. in the form of thin wires. To achieve improved processability by using hot forming and to obtain higher diameter reductions per pass, the dieless wire drawing process is presented in this paper. In order to investigate the processability and the resulting mechanical properties, a selection of magnesium- and zinc-alloys as well as process parameters are chosen, and wire manufacturing is carried out using the dieless drawing process. The resulting process windows and mechanical properties for the selected materials are discussed. It is found that the length of the forming zone is an important indicator for the process window and the cross-sectional area reduction accuracy in the dieless wire drawing process. Furthermore, process parameter variations result in a distinct variation of the mechanical properties of the wires, whereas process temperatures close to the wire extrusion temperature result in mechanical properties similar to the as-extruded wires. Good localization of the deformation is found for forming zones of 25–75 mm length at elevated temperatures and cross-sectional area reductions of up to 30% are possible for Z1 and ZX10 in one drawing step.Graphical

Mechanical and Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Reinforced with Rubberwood Fiber

An additive manufacturing (AM) has become very popular due to its simplicity in producing complicated products using just one process due to the layer-by-layer addition of material, which makes it possible for more complicated products to be created. The constraint of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printed components with inadequate mechanical qualities has prevented AM from being widely adopted by numerous industries. The mechanical and thermal qualities of FFF printed components which is a pure polymer could be enhanced by reinforcing the wood fiber into the polymer. In this study, the twin-screw extruder was used to produce the wood plastic composites (WPCs) filaments, which were made with ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) as the matrix material and 1-3wt% rubberwood fiber (RWF) for reinforcement. The effects of the extrusion parameter, such as the volume fraction of RWF and the temperature of the extrusion process, on the 3D-printed WPCs samples were investigated. The experimental results of 3D-printed WPC sample were found that the highest compressive strength value is 24.3 MPa, obtained from the rubberwood 1wt% at the extrusion temperature 218 °C whereas the pure ABS filaments obtaining from the commercial and extrusion process gave the values of 28.9 and 14.5 MPa, respectively. The highest value of tensile strength is 8.4 MPa with the rubberwood 2wt% and temperature 198 °C whereas the pure ABS filaments obtaining from the commercial and extrusion process gave the values of 10.9 and 7.4 MPa, respectively. The morphological analysis of the 3D-printed WPC sample was observed to exhibit an effect of printing process. The result showed that an increasing temperature of extrusion process increases both tensile and compressive strengths of the samples whereas an increasing amount of fiber increases the tensile strength but decreased the compressive strength. Analysis of variance demonstrated linear factor and 2-way interaction factor of the extrusion parameter influence on compression and tensile strength significantly. The rubberwood 2wt% and the temperature 218 °C was suggested to achieve the suitable condition for extrusion process for the 3D-printed WPC sample. In addition, the discussions were supported with the thermal properties achieved from Thermogravimetric analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry.

Electrical property enhancement of non-heat-treatable wrought aluminum alloys using graphene additives

With growing efforts of electrification, aluminum’s role as a light-weight conductor material has become increasingly prominent. There is a critical need to improve the electrical performance of aluminum at room temperature and high operating temperatures. In this study, the effect of graphene nanoparticle additives on the electrical performance of a non-heat treatable alloy were (AA3003) explored. Graphene’s unusual structure and electronic properties were used to improve AA3003 properties. Here, the effects of graphene on the evolution of electrical properties and microstructural features have been explored on lab scale hot extruded AA3003-graphene composites. Hot pressing schedules and extrusion temperatures were varied to investigate changes in intermetallic dispersion characteristics in the presence of dispersed graphene. We measured a reduction of 10.3 % in the temperature coefficient of resistance in the AA3003 sample with 0.05 wt% graphene extruded at 400 °C, along with a maximum increase of 1.1 % in electrical conductivity at 20 °C. Increasing the hot-pressing times up to 8 hours was also found to consistently increase the electrical conductivity, due to increased precipitation of intermetallic phases. Despite being a non-heat treatable alloy, AA3003 displays interesting precipitation dynamics and grain recrystallization trends that can be modulated with varying levels of heat treatment, graphene concentrations, and hot extrusion process parameters.

Investigating surfaces, geometry and degree of fusion of tracks printed using fused deposition modelling to optimise process parameters for polymeric materials at meso-scale

PurposeThe current analysis was conducted to investigate the quality of surfaces and geometry of tracks printed using PolyMideTM CoPA, PolymaxTM PC and PolyMideTM PA6-CF materials through fused deposition modelling (FDM). This study also examined the degree of fusion of adjacent filaments (tracks) to approximate the optimal process parameters of the three materials.Design/methodology/approachImages of fused adjacent filaments were acquired using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), after which, they were analysed using Image J Software and Minitab Software to determine the optimal process parameters.FindingsThe optimal process parameters for PolyMideTM CoPA are 0.25 mm, 40 mm/s, −0.10 mm, 255°C and 0.50 mm for layer thickness, printing speed, hatch spacing, extrusion temperature and extrusion width, respectively. It was also concluded that the optimal process parameters for PolymaxTM PC are 0.30 mm, 40 mm/s, 0.00 mm, 260°C and 0.6 mm for layer thickness, printing speed, hatch spacing, extrusion temperature and extrusion width, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsIt was difficult to separate tracks printed using PolyMideTM PA6-CF from the support structure, making it impossible to examine and determine their degree of fusion using SEM.Social implicationsThe study provides more knowledge on FDM, which is one of the leading additive manufacturing technology for polymers. The information provided in this study helps in continued uptake of the technique, which can help create job opportunities, especially among the youth and young engineers.Originality/valueThis study proposes a new and a more accurate method for optimising process parameters of FDM at meso-scale level.