Extraterritorial Research Articles

Painting and Photography in Foreigners’ Construction of an Image of Qing Dynasty Law

In recent years, with the spread of the internet and the booming auction markets, combined with our new age of so-called “picture-reading,” paintings and photographs concerning Qing justice have overwhelmed our view. Scholars and nonscholars are attracted by them, and believe them to be showing real historical scenes. Pictures seemingly facilitate our grasp of the world more than mere facts do, but they actually demand readers’ careful discrimination. The author of the present article has discovered that the initial British construction of a discourse about the cruelty of China’s criminal punishments was related to this topic having been exposed by Chinese themselves. The seemingly real images or pictures have an unknown back story, and even contain a serious distortion of the truth. Such imagistic constructions by foreigners in fact directly or indirectly served the establishment and maintenance of foreign extraterritoriality in China. The living images recorded by foreigners’ cameras not only constructed Western impressions of China and Chinese people as distant, thus strengthening contemporary Westerners’ mental images of Chinese culture, but still urge us Chinese today to interpret the past in the light of such images. An icon of a blood-thirsty Qing legal system constructed through painting and photographic procedures became an objective fact, a collective consciousness that penetrated people’s hearts and eventually led to modifications of those Qing laws. The mental construction of an icon influenced actual institutional movement.

Beyond the Perimeter of Depoliticization. The Evolution of the Global Governance of Refugees and its Territorialisation in Calabria

This study explores the evolution of the global governance of refugees in light of studies on depoliticisation. Following theories on governmentality, it emphasizes the centrality of the concept of de-politicisation when examining the narratives and practices implemented to establish an extraterritorial asylum system of humanitarian containment, detached from any ideals of inclusion and rehabilitation. At the same time, we recall diverse empirical evidence in order to stress the importance of considering the divergent effects of depoliticisation in geographically and culturally distant contexts. The survey in Ca-labria, Italy, presents in fact the political attempt by its inner areas to foster autonomous practices of in-clusion that contrast the securitarian shift of the global asylum system, as well as its national implications, recognising refugees as a strategic factor of economic growth and social innovation. In particular, we re-veal the mechanisms through which new forms of local citizenship have emerged here, along with institu-tional solutions specifically connoted by a bilateral and place-based approach to forced migration. These efforts persist despite the breakup of the current European refugee crisis which, however, now opens new dilemmas by diminishing the viability of refugee relocation within the internal areas as a truly sustainable process.

Extraterritorial application of Human Rights Treaties and the Universal Repression in international criminal law

POZATERYTORIALNE STOSOWANIE TRAKTATÓW PRAW CZŁOWIEKA A REPRESJA UNIWERSALNA W MIĘDZYNARODOWYM PRAWIE KARNYMJaka jest relacja między pozaterytorialnym stosowaniem traktatów praw człowieka a represją uniwersalną w międzynarodowym prawie karnym? Z jednej strony efektywne wdrożenie niektórych norm traktatowych ustanawiających poszczególne prawa człowieka wymaga wydania i egzekucji konkretnych przepisów prawa karnego na poziomie krajowym. Z drugiej strony międzynarodowe prawo karne stanowi oddzielny reżim, rządzący się innymi zasadami. Jednym z aspektów, który łączy te dwie płaszczyzny jest ich pozaterytorialne stosowanie. Jaka jest zatem relacja między represją uniwersalną i pozaterytorialnym stosowaniem traktatów praw człowieka? Czy reżimy te są komplementarne? Czy prawo praw człowieka zawsze podąża za działaniami państwa mającymi na celu realizację represji uniwersalnej? Niniejszy artykuł składa się z dwóch zasadniczych części. Zaczyna się od analizy podobieństw i różnic między tymi dwoma reżimami, a następnie przechodzi do dyskusji na temat ich bezpośredniej relacji. Podjęto próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy każdy z nich może tak naprawdę istnieć bez zastosowania drugiego.

Extraterritoriality of Securities Law Redux: Litigation Five Years After Morrison v. National Australia Bank

In the famous Morrison v. National Australia Bank case, Justice Scalia mounted an attack on plaintiffs with tenuous connection to U.S. capital markets and attempted to rein in class actions against international corporations. Despite Morrison’s broad implications, there is no consensus on its ultimate impact. This Article contributes to this discussion by examining the risk of litigation faced by foreign firms before and after Morrison. The research reviews securities class actions between 2005 and 2015. The timeframe of the reported filings is from January 2005 through December 2015, i.e., about five years before and five years after Morrison. The Article reports data obtained from the filings and related court decisions, updated as of November 30, Extraterritoriality of Securities Law Redux: Litigation Five Years After Morrison v. National Australia Bank 2016. The Article concludes that, first, the actual risk of litigation has become more ascertainable and slightly lower than before Morrison. Second, Morrison affected the composition of the plaintiffs’ class. Based on mean and median settlement values, Morrison may be associated with lower litigation costs. Third, the results suggest that when firms select a cross-listing mode (i.e., an exchange listing or OTC trading), they effectively choose their level of commitment to U.S. markets through not only the ex-ante known reporting costs, but also projected litigation costs. Fourth, the research reviews the timing of settlements and dismissals vis-a-vis the types of cross-listing programs. Although more research is needed in this area, Morrison may have enabled foreign firms to rule out inflated assessments of the risk of litigation and to more precisely determine the expected value of their cross-listing programs net of litigation.

Deterrence Dilemma in Latvia and Estonia: Finding the Balance between External Military Solidarity and Territorial Defence

While potential threats from Russia and NATO collective defence commitments are similar for Latvia and Estonia, both countries have adopted different approaches in the balancing exercise between territorial defence and military solidarity. Notwithstanding their differences, both are by their nature fully non-aggressive – without room for pre-emptive initiatives, extra territoriality or asymmetrical tools. Given that in a case of a hypothetical large-scale conventional attack both countries would almost entirely have to rest on the allies, external military solidarity is essential. Until the Ukraine crisis, both offered more military solidarity towards their NATO allies than the latter offered to them. As the result of the Ukrainian crisis, allies became more military-solidary with the Baltic nations, especially having established the Enhanced Forward Presence, while Estonian and especially Latvian contributions to international missions and operations dropped. Therefore, it is suggested that both countries increase their efforts to the allied international endeavours.

Extraterritoriality Meets Islamic law: Legal pluralism and elements of proof in the International mixed court of Morocco, 1871-1872

This article is a case study of the short-lived international mixed court in Morocco (1871-1872); focusing on the regimes of proof employed in that court, the article examines the encounter between extraterritoriality and Islamic law in the mediterranean. The evidence presented to the Moroccan mixed court was an amalgam of forms; some creditors presented informal contracts which might have held up according to European and North American standards of evidence, but were null and void according to Islamic law as it was practiced in Morocco. Although the court failed, it influenced the ways in which both diplomats and Muslim judicial officials approached elements of proof in their respective institutions. Rather than merely identifying the pluralism of the Moroccan legal system in the late nineteenth century, this study focuses on the mutual influence exerted by coexisting legal orders on one another and the outcomes of this interaction.

The Extraterritorial Reach of Sovereign Debt Enforcement

A significant barrier to enforcing sovereign debt obligations in U.S. court has been finding and attaching non-immune assets of the foreign sovereign debtor. In June 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court issued decisions in litigation between Argentina and hedge fund NML Capital that will significantly benefit creditors in the enforcement process. In one decision, the Court affirmed an order to compel banks to provide information as to how Argentina moves its monetary assets around the world, finding that the U.S. Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) does not limit a court’s power to order post-judgment discovery. In the other decision, the Court denied certiorari to review an injunction prohibiting Argentina from making payments to holders of its restructured debt unless and until it pays NML Capital, and threatening to hold liable third parties that aid and abet Argentina in processing such payments. The NML decisions follow protracted, previously unsuccessful efforts by hedge funds holding defaulted Argentine debt to enforce New York judgments against Argentina. This paper argues that the discovery and injunction orders at issue in NML contravene the FSIA due to their extraterritorial reach. The FSIA should be read to prohibit these orders for several reasons. The Court has interpreted the FSIA to be the exclusive basis for jurisdiction against a foreign state in U.S. court. Additionally, the historical context in which the statute was adopted supports a narrow reading of exceptions to execution immunity under the FSIA. Finally, the presumption against extraterritoriality calls for a restrained interpretive approach. The Supreme Court’s interpretation of the FSIA in NML Capital adopts an acontextual reading of the FSIA’s language to reach an unreasonable result.

: (The Extraterritoriality of Economic Sanctions: An Opposition to Legal Imperialism at the National Level)

Russian Abstract: Многие страны мира пытаются противостоять экстерриториальному применению экономических санкций, вводимых другими государствами, запрещая или ограничивая действие соответствующих иностранных законов на своей территории. C 2012 г. Россия сама является объектом односторонних экономических санкций. Можно ли применить опыт других стран к России? Какие шаги для защиты национального суверенитета предпринял или может предпринять отечественный законодатель?English Abstract: Many jurisdictions oppose to the extraterritorial use of economic sanctions to block the application of respective foreign statutes within their territories. Since 2012, Western countries have imposed economic sanctions against Russia. Is it possible to apply the practice of foreign countries to neutralize the impact of Western sanctions? What steps can Russian legislature take to preserve national sovereignty?

Evidence by means of closed circuit television or similar electronic media in South Africa: Does section 158 of the Criminal Procedure Act have extraterritorial application?

Getuienis deur middel van Geslotekringtelevisie of Soortgelyke Media in SuidAfrika - Het Artikel 158 van die Strafproseswet Ekstra-territoriale Toepassing? Artikel 158(2) van die Strafproseswet 51 van 1977 bepaal onder andere dat 'n Hof op eie inisiatief of op aansoek van die aanklaer, die beskuldigde of 'n getuie kan gelas dat die beskuldigde of getuie, indien die beskuldigde of getuie daartoe instem, deur middel van geslotekringtelevisie of soortgelyke elektroniese media getuig. Regspraak, insluitend appelhof gesag, toon aan dat artikel 158 ook aangewend is in die verlede vir getuies wat buite Suid Afrika gesetel is ten einde getuienis af te le deur middel van geslotekringtelevisie tydens 'n verhoor in Suid Afrika. In hierdie bydrae word daar aangetoon dat hierdie praktyk foutief is met spesifieke verysing na geskiedenis ten aansien van die opstel van artikel 158.

Extraterritorial Kidnapping and the Rules on Interstate Force

Extraterritorial Kidnapping and the Rules on Interstate Force

La recuperación de la voz propia en las revoluciones árabes: convenciones culturales y epistemológicas para el fin del poscolonialismo

La “primavera árabe” ha sido un ejemplo de empoderamiento social y de impulso de nuevas epistemologías para la construcción de una memoria histórica sin opresión, censura ni significación eurocentrista. En este artículo se defiende que las manifestaciones lingüísticas y otras convenciones culturales con las que la sociedad de Oriente Medio ha recuperado su voz propia, una voz secuestrada y censurada por los regímenes dictatoriales, constituyen una serie de narrativas que se transforman en un elemento de empoderamiento y movilización política para debilitar y en su momento terminar con el régimen de pensamiento poscolonial que ha significado y resignificado el pasado y el presente de estos pueblos con el fin de dominarlos y determinarlos para beneficio propio y de sus patrocinadores políticos en el extranjero.

The European Union Overstepping Its Bounds and Borders: The Extraterritorial Effect of the Emissions Trading System and Its Call for Multilateral Action

The European Union Overstepping Its Bounds and Borders: The Extraterritorial Effect of the Emissions Trading System and Its Call for Multilateral Action

The Call for Criminal Sanctions for Enforcement of Competition Law and its Practical Concerns

The effectiveness of competition law and its enforcement based on fines as well as behavioral and structural remedies has always been a debatable issue. It is argued that such competition law enforcement based on fines and other remedies has less deterrent effect compared to a system based on criminal sanctions. Therefore some of the jurists and authors have proposed that criminal sanctions should be included in the competition law enforcement. This paper seeks to examine the need and effectiveness of criminal sanctions in enforcement of competition law. It discusses the various justifications for the use of criminal sanctions for competition law enforcement such as Utilitarian Justification of Deterrence; Retributivist Non-Consequentialist Justification; Stigma Effect; To ensure the Obligation of Members or Agents of the Company; To Legitimize the Extra Territorial Application of Competition Law; and To Ensure Cooperation among Countries. At the same time this paper also identifies various practical issues involved in the criminal enforcement of competition law such as the problem of defining competition law offences; attribution of mens rea to corporate bodies; attribution of vicarious liability to the body corporate in criminal law; etc. Further the paper attempts to provide some pragmatic solutions for dealing with the various concerns raised by the criminal enforcement of competition law.

Desarrollos respecto a la regulación extraterritorial y al soft law: ¿hacia nuevas medidas para asegurar la responsabilidad de las empresas por su desempeño en materia de derechos humanos?

Dos de los principales temas que han sido discutidos en el área de la responsabilidad y rendición de cuentas empresarial por abusos en materia de derechos humanos han sido el uso de la extraterritorialidad y el rol y alcance del soft law. Diversas limitaciones respecto al uso de la adjudicación extraterritorial han estado presentes desde el inicio de la discusión en los Estados Unidos a mitad de la década de 1980. El caso Kiobel apoya la noción de limitar la facultad de las cortes federales para actuar como foros para casos que involucren partes de nacionalidad extranjera y situaciones ocurridas en territorio distinto al estadounidense. Respecto al tema del soft law, la doctrina ha intentado ampliar su alcance y transformarlo en una obligación jurídica vinculante, sin que haya habido éxito. Sin embargo, algunos desarrollos en el área de la extraterritorialidad han empezado a cambiar esa percepción: algunas sentencias recientes provenientes del Reino Unido y de los Países Bajos han comenzado a reconocer la existencia de una responsabilidad de las empresas matrices por los actos de sus subsidiarias. Estos desarrollos podrían eventualmente conducir a la aparición de nuevas perspectivas en relación a estándares vinculantes y a un remedio judicial efectivo y regulación en el campo de las empresas y los derechos humanos.

Europe and Extraterritorial Asylum

Europe and Extraterritorial Asylum

Beyond Securities Fraud: The Territorial Reach of U.S. Laws After Morrison v. N.A.B.

In Morrison v. National Australia Bank, the Supreme Court sent a clear signal that the presumption against extraterritorial application of federal legislation must be construed seriously going forward. The Court then adopted a transaction-based approach to resolving claims brought under the antifraud provision of the Exchange Act, focusing almost exclusively on the place of the transaction. In the months after the decision, practitioners and academics alike directed much of their attention––and criticism––on the impact it would have on private securities litigations. This Note posits that the real significance of Morrison lies in its application beyond securities law. Indeed, in the two and a half years since the decision, Morrison has been raised by defendants seeking to dismiss claims brought under the RICO Act, the Alien Tort Statute, the Torture Act, the Lanham Act, the Sherman Act, and the Anti-Retaliation Provision of the Dodd-Frank Act, to name a few. The use of Morrison to limit claims beyond securities fraud is troubling for several reasons. First, finding a clear expression of extraterritorial effect in the language and context of a statute is an inherently subjective exercise. Different courts have applied, and will continue to apply, inconsistent standards concerning similar statutes. Second, the transaction-based approach, which acts as a bright-line test in cases involving exchange-traded securities, may not be so readily adapted under a wholly different set of law and facts. As a result, courts that agree on a statute’s lack of extraterritorial effect may nonetheless disagree regarding its extension to reach a claim. Finally, many of the policy rationales for limiting the cross-border application of the Exchange Act do not so readily extend to other statutes. This Note examines the application of Morrison both inside and outside of securities law. It then makes a case against extending Morrison, and suggests steps that Congress may take to provide greater clarity for the courts.

Why is the U.S. Abdicating the Policing of Multinational Corporations to Europe?: Extraterritoriality, Sovereignty, and the Alien Tort Statute

The United States has policed the multinational effects of multinational corporations more aggressively than any other country, but recent decisions under the Alien Tort Statute indicate that it is now backtracking. Europe, paradoxically, is moving in the other direction. Why do some countries retract extraterritorial jurisdiction while others step forward? The article traces the opposing trends through corporate human rights cases and suggests that the answer may lie in attitudes towards national sovereignty. The developments raise important questions regarding the position of the United States in a globalizing world and its role in upholding international norms.

The Independent’s View of Extraterritoriality, 1896~1899

The Independent’s View of Extraterritoriality, 1896~1899

Morrison, the Effects Test, and the Presumption Against Extraterritoriality: A Reply to Professor Dodge

<i>Morrison</i>, the Effects Test, and the Presumption Against Extraterritoriality: A Reply to Professor Dodge

Extraterritorial Prison Plans in the Style of IKEA and the Prison Playlist

Extraterritorial Prison Plans in the Style of IKEA and the Prison Playlist