Extramural English Research Articles

The relationship between extramural English engagement and the vocabulary size of L1 Cantonese speakers in Macau

Abstract This study investigated the relationship between the English vocabulary size of first language Cantonese speakers in Macau (N = 77) and engagement in extramural English activities. The 140-item Vocabulary Size Test was used to collect data on participants’ vocabulary size and a 13-item questionnaire tapped into background learning experiences as well as participation in 16 extramural activities. Small correlations between vocabulary size and book reading, subtitled television viewing, non-subtitled online video viewing, level of education, study abroad experience, and travel abroad experience were found. A medium correlation between vocabulary size and language of instruction in secondary school was also found. A four variable sequential regression accounted for 26% of the variance in participants’ vocabulary sizes, with book reading adding the most explanatory power after language of instruction in secondary school had been eliminated. The impact of extramural activities on vocabulary size and pedagogical implications for the Macau and similar contexts were discussed.

Positive psychology constructs and Extramural English as predictors of primary school students’ willingness to communicate

ABSTRACT This mixed-methods study investigates whether and to what extent positive psychology constructs (classroom enjoyment, grit, and growth mindset) and Extramural English predict primary school students’ willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) both in the classroom (a fictitious but common setting for English communication among English as an Foreign Language [EFL] students) and outside the classroom (a natural and increasingly prevalent environment for EFL communication). We collect and analyze survey data from 160 EFL primary school students in Hong Kong (ages 6–13 years old). Hierarchical regression analyses reveal that L2 WTC in the classroom is predicted by classroom enjoyment, grit, and Extramural English. A slightly different picture emerges outside of the classroom, with grit, growth mindset, and Extramural English predicting L2 WTC. Semi-structured interviews (N = 8) confirm and elaborate on the quantitative findings. Our findings suggest that through grit- and Extramural English-integrated intervention programmes, EFL teachers can improve young learners’ L2 WTC both inside and outside the classroom. Furthermore, teachers can improve young learners’ L2 WTC in the classroom by creating a positive learning environment, while also improving their L2 WTC outside of the classroom by cultivating their growth mindset system.

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DYNED: ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH, LANGUAGE LEARNING ANXIETY, AND LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT

This study aims to find out the effectiveness of DynED on the secondary school English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ attitude towards English, their language anxiety, and language achievement. In doing this, scales and achievement test (n=119) were administered to secondary school EFL learners through employing an experimental/control group design. While the experimental group used DynED actively, the control group received regular in-class English instruction. The statistical analyses showed that there was no significant difference in students' attitudes, language anxiety, and language achievement between the control and experimental groups. Also, it was found out that the students' anxiety, attitude, and achievement did not vary significantly in relation to their gender and grade level. Therefore, synthesizing the literature on extramural English and third-space, this study has also offered practical suggestions for curriculum developers and teachers to promote DynED use for language learning/teaching.

Connecting Extramural English with ELT: Teacher Reports from Austria, Finland, France, and Sweden

Abstract Today, we globally observe a sharp increase in learners’ engagement in extramural (out-of-class) English (EE; Sundqvist 2009). This undoubtedly affords new opportunities for, but also challenges to, English language teaching (ELT) and learning. To our knowledge, this study is the first to explore this topic from a cross-national perspective. Upper secondary English teachers (N = 534) from Austria, France (‘dubbing countries’), Finland, and Sweden (‘subtitling countries’) answered a web-based survey on their students’ EE practices and the estimated impact on teaching and learning. Results showed that overall EE use appears lower in the dubbing countries, especially France (p < 0.001). The teachers’ estimated effect of EE on different areas of learning overall was also the weakest in France (p ≤ .01). Further, teachers in subtitling countries agreed more strongly with statements about adapting instruction to what is (not) learned extramurally (p < 0.001). As EE use is growing, individual learner needs within a class, such as emerging gaps in learner motivation and/or language knowledge and skills, will increasingly have to be catered to in ELT.

Trends in Swedish and English Reading Comprehension Ability among Swedish Adolescents: A Study of SweSAT Data 2012–2018

ABSTRACT The aim of the study is to investigate trends in academic L1 Swedish and L2 English reading comprehension ability among Swedish adolescents, with a specific focus on 18- to 20-year-olds in the period 2012–2018. The material consists of results from regular tests and anchor tests in the spring administrations of the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test (SweSAT) 2012–2018, allowing an analysis of trends in reading comprehension ability among a subset of the adolescent population. The results show two highly significant but opposite trends, with a substantial decrease in academic Swedish reading comprehension and an equally substantial increase in academic English reading comprehension. The results are discussed from the perspective of a changing media landscape, and related to results of the PISA-studies as well as to research on extramural English in Swedish society.

Accuracy and Fluency Teaching and the Role of Extramural English: A Tale of Three Countries

European learners of English are increasingly using this language recreationally, which is referred to as Extramural English (henceforth EE). The level of EE use in a given country might be reflected in English Language Teaching (ELT) practices. Yet, no research so far has examined cross-nationally what potential for language learning teachers perceive in their learners’ EE engagement and how this relates to ELT practices. To address this gap, the present study draws on interview data from lower secondary English teachers from Austria, France, and Sweden (n = 20). They were enquired about (1) their students’ EE engagement and its effects on learning, (2) their accuracy and fluency teaching methods, and (3) the perceived link between EE and ELT. Swedish teachers seemed to have a more positive and fine-grained conceptualization of the impact of EE on learning than Austrian and French participants, especially in terms of grammar acquisition. The implicit learning environment that Swedish students encounter extramurally might extend to the classroom, where the use of explicit grammar rules occurs less dominantly than in the Austrian and French samples. The countries converged in the type of fluency-based instruction they reported. Gaps in language areas not (fully) developed through EE seem to be more intentionally addressed in ELT in Sweden.

THE USE OF SMARTPHONES AS EXTRAMURAL ENGLISH LEARNING TO ENRICH EFL LEARNERS’ VOCABULARY

Smartphone has long been considered as a double-edged sword which has both positive and negative effects. Instead of banning the use of smartphones, a smart teacher has to be able to encourage EFL learners to use smartphones wisely to facilitate their learning. Smartphones enable the learners to use the language in a real situation outside the classroom, which is called Extramural English Learning. This kind of situation is believed to contribute to learners vocabularies. Learners’ ability to use various kinds of vocabulary, especially English academic words, will make a positive contribution to their writing. Employing a correlation design, the aim of the research was to investigate the correlation between the use of smartphones as extramural English learning and learners’ vocabularies focusing on English academic words. Questionnaire and writing test were used as instruments to collect the data from 35 undergraduate students of English department in East Java, Indonesia. The results of the data analysis by using Pearson Correlation confirmed the significant positive correlation between the use of smartphones as extramural English learning and learners’ vocabularies that indicated the benefit of extramural activities with smartphones on enriching learners’ vocabulary. Further, the pedagogical implication was also discussed.

Hungarian secondary school EFL teachers’ perceptions of their students’ individual differences: A validation study

Besides classroom-based EFL lessons, EFL learners have a plethora of opportunities to learn the language by engaging in out-of-school or in other words extramural English activities. As learners pursue these activities for entertainment purposes, extramural English activities may be closely associated with L2 learning motivation. In addition to motivation, several other individual learner differences, namely L2 anxiety and L2 willingness to communicate are also important in both the school-based and the extramural learning contexts, as motivating and stress-free environments may lead to a decrease in learners’ level of L2 anxiety and an increase in the level of their L2 willingness to communicate. Using the quantitative research paradigm, the present pilot study aimed to investigate Hungarian secondary school EFL teachers’ perceptions of their students’ individual learner differences as well as extramural EFL learning. The preliminary results show that participants demonstrate an overall positive attitude towards extramural EFL learning and considered their students to be relatively motivated to learn English, to be willing to speak English in EFL classes. Finally, participants’ responses also show that they do not perceive their students anxious in EFL classes.

Hungarian Secondary School Students’ Extramural English Interests: The Development and Validation of a Questionnaire

Leisure time (or extramural) English activities have been an important resource in foreign language teaching and learning for decades. They may provide a plethora of EFL input, thus contributing to learners’ second language development even from an early age. The incorporation of extramural English activities into EFL lessons still remains rare, focusing only on mainly songs and short videos from YouTube. Despite this, an array of different extramural English activities is available, which could and should be exploited in EFL lessons in order to support second language acquisition. In the Hungarian context, little research investigates the potential impact of extramural English activities on the foreign language learning process, let alone the different individual learner differences. The aim of the present paper is to introduce a pilot study reporting on the development and validation process of a research instrument. The main aim of the study is to obtain insights into Hungarian secondary school students’ extramural English interests and individual learner differences, namely motivation, anxiety, willingness to communicate and additional variables affecting these learner differences. The preliminary results of the study show that Hungarian EFL learners engage in several extramural English activities on a regular basis and participants seem to show a relatively positive attitude to the use of English language subtitles. Furthermore, certain extramural English activities seem to have a positive impact on extramural motivated language use. It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to a better understanding of Hungarian secondary school EFL students’ engagement habits in extramural English activities, which may prove useful for EFL teachers planning to incorporate their students’ extramural interests into their EFL lessons.

Target languages, types of activities, engagement, and effectiveness of extramural language learning.

Since Sundqvist introduced the term “extramural English” in 2009, empirical research on extramural language learning has continued to expand. However, the expanding empirical research has yet yielded incommensurate review studies. To present a timely picture of the field of extramural language learning, this study conducts a review of 33 relevant articles retrieved from Scopus and Web of Science databases. The results showed the five types of target languages frequently investigated in this field (i.e., English, German, French, Chinese, and Japanese) and seven main types of extramural learning activities (i.e., playing digital games, watching videos, reading, listening to audios, having technology-enhanced socialisation, having face-to-face socialisation, and writing compositions). People’s engagement in extramural language learning was overall high, especially listening to audios and playing digital games, mediated by the relationship between the difficulty of the activities and people’s target language proficiency levels, gender, and the interactive environment. Extramural language learning was overall effective for language development and enhancing affective states in language learning. The effectiveness may be influenced by the involvement of language inputs and outputs and the amount of engagement time. Implications for practitioners were suggested concerning encouraging digital gameplay, emphasising formal language instruction, and creating positive interactive environments for extramural language learning.

Grammar teaching in ELT: A cross-national comparison of teacher-reported practices

Today, the Common European Framework of Reference (2009), and with it the action-based approach, underlies English Language Teaching (ELT) curricula throughout Europe. However, actual teaching practices are likely to vary according to factors such as the educational level and supra-national differences, including legal guidelines and the level of extramural English, i.e. out-of-school use of English (Sundqvist, 2009). Those factors presumably influence the role of grammar teaching in foreign language classrooms, which has been the subject of continuous debate (see Graus & Coppen, 2016; Thornbury, 1999; Ur, 2011). Such potential differences in teacher-reported ELT practices across Europe have not yet been investigated in instructed second language acquisition research. Therefore, the present study aims to compare the type of instruction in lower vs. upper secondary school in Sweden, Austria, and France, countries ranking differently in the EF Proficiency index (Education First, 2019). 615 secondary English teachers across the three countries filled in an online questionnaire designed to assess their use of planned vs. incidental form focus, implicit vs. explicit, and inductive vs. deductive instruction (Ellis, 2001a, 2009; Long, 1991). Results seem to indicate that (1) in lower secondary, Swedish teachers teach less explicitly than teachers in Austria and France; (2) Sweden provides ELT that is more implicit-fluency-based than does Austria and France; (3) incidental (rather than planned) grammar teaching is more dominant in upper than in lower secondary across countries and in Sweden and France as compared to Austria; and (4) French teachers differ from the other groups in their application of more inductive rather than deductive instruction. We argue that both the educational level and a country’s language policies and ideologies – and consequently also the extent to which they encourage use and exposure to extramural English – may be determining factors in the type of instruction applied in ELT.

Explaining individual differences in young English language learners’ vocabulary knowledge: The role of Extramural English Exposure and motivation

The role of motivation and extramural English exposure in explaining individual differences in young English language learners’ (YELLs’) English performance is unclear. In this study, we hypothesized that different types of extramural English exposure predict YELLs’ (Dutch, N = 262, 10 years old, grade 4) oral and written English receptive vocabulary knowledge, and that motivational factors act as mediators. A distinction was made between YELLs learning English only informally through extramural English exposure and YELLs learning English also formally at school. A path analysis showed that the total impact of familial extramural English exposure and extramural English exposure through entertaining media was greater for the YELLs learning English informally, compared to YELLs learning English also formally. While the sources of extramural English exposure were directly predictive of performance with regard to both oral and written English receptive vocabulary tests for YELLs’ learning English informally, linguistic self-confidence fully mediated these relationships for YELLs learning English formally. Our findings call for further development of theoretical frameworks explaining the relationship between YELLs’ motivation and exposure.

Learners’ English Vocabulary Knowledge Prior to Formal Instruction: The Role of Learner‐Related and Word‐Related Variables

This study focused on the mechanisms underlying incidental second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition prior to formal instruction. We designed a cross‐sectional study to examine which learner‐related and word‐related variables affect young learners’ vocabulary knowledge at the level of meaning recognition and meaning recall. We collected data from 616 Flemish children between 10 and 12 years old by using a questionnaire about learners’ extramural English, an English vocabulary test, and a Dutch vocabulary test. The findings revealed that participating learners frequently engaged in activities involving English before receiving formal instruction and that their amount of extramural English increased with age. The results also showed the rate of vocabulary growth from exposure to extramural English for three contiguous age groups. Further, both word‐related and learner‐related variables predicted vocabulary knowledge. Cognateness was the most powerful predictor, followed by frequency and concreteness. We also found a positive relationship between extramural English and vocabulary knowledge.Open PracticesThis article has been awarded an Open Materials badge. All materials are publicly accessible via the IRIS Repository at https://www.iris-database.org. Learn more about the Open Practices badges from the Center for Open Science: https://osf.io/tvyxz/wiki.

“Do You Use English in Your Daily Life?” Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions of Their Extramural Use of English

ABSTRACTThe aim of this research is to analyse the students’ perceptions about their extramural use of English, comparing undergraduates studying their degree in English (EMI) with those studying theirs in their native language (non-EMI) within a span of five academic years. Data collected from a Spanish University suggest that the students´s interest and perception of their possibilities of working abroad in English differ. Results also reveal key differences in the use of extramural English and suggest that exposure to reading books or watching English-language films will eventually contribute to the formation of global mindset in students. The trend of the importance of English during a five year span is also considered, for both strands of students. This study makes a contribution in the field of teaching in international business settings for high education institutions.

Extramural English in Teaching and Learning: From Theory and Research to Practice

Sundqvist and Sylvén’s book focuses on extramural English (EE), a term coined by the first author to denote L2 learner-initiated involvement with English outside the classroom walls. The book provides an overview of theory and research related to EE and discusses the implications it has for L2 English teaching and learning. The impetus for writing this volume was the lack of a comprehensive handbook for ELT practitioners, student teachers, teacher educators, and researchers that addresses the new challenges of teaching L2 English in the 21st century to primary and secondary school learners, many of whom engage in English-mediated activities in their spare time. The authors are based in Sweden, the educational context for the specific EE-labelled research reviewed in some sections of the book. It may in some respects be more relevant to that context, as extreme EE consumers have been identified among adolescent Swedes, a case in point being Olsson (2016), whose participants in one category spent an average of seven hours per day on EE. However, the book explicitly involves target readers around the world.

Gaming as an English Language Learning Resource among Young Children in Denmark

This paper presents a study of Danish young English language learners’ (YELLs’) contact with and use of Extramural English (EE) (N = 107, aged 8 (n = 49) and 10 (n = 58)). They have received little formal English instruction: two weekly lessons for one year. Data on EE-habits were collected with a one-week language diary (self-report with parental guidance). Participants reported minutes spent each day on seven EE-activities: gaming, listening to music, reading, talking, watching television, writing and other. Vocabulary proficiency scores were obtained using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT™-4). The results show that most time was spent on gaming, music and watching television. Boys gamed significantly more (p < .001) than girls (235 minutes/week vs. 47 minutes/week). Additionally, the results show that gaming with both oral and written English input and gaming with only written English input are significantly related to vocabulary scores, in particular for boys. By investigating the EE-habits of YELLs and relations with second language (L2) English vocabulary learning, this study adds valuable new insights and knowledge about a topic that is becoming increasingly important for children in a globalized world.

Extramural English and academic vocabulary

In content and language integrated learning (CLIL), where school subjects are taught trough an L2 – in this case English – students often reach higher L2 proficiency levels than students who follow regular education. There are also indications that English encountered and used outside of school, e.g. through books, computer games or films, may be as influential as CLIL instruction for vocabulary growth. However, there is little research on the development of academic vocabulary in this connection, and few studies have considered students’ use of English outside school, when evaluating the effect of CLIL instruction. In this study, male and female CLIL and non-CLIL students’ use of English in their spare time is investigated and compared (N=230). Further, the possible impact of extramural English on students’ progress in academic vocabulary use in writing is investigated. The results indicate that CLIL students use English in their spare time to a significantly greater extent than non-CLIL students. Male CLIL students, who used English outside school most frequently, also included the highest proportion of academic vocabulary in their essays. However, they did not progress more than other students; extramural English does not seem to have any significant impact on progress of academic vocabulary over time.

Engelska på fritiden och engelska i skolan – en omöjlig ekvation?

The present article explores challenges facing English language classrooms in Sweden and elsewhere due to new informal out-of-school language learning settings created by the current media landscape. The article also discusses the empowerment of teachers and teachers’ perceived ability to bridge the gap between the English used in school and the English used outside of school (extramural English) in various activities (blogging, playing digital games, watching TV/films etc.). Generally young people engage in extramural English activities on a voluntary basis and because of a specific interest; that is, they do not commonly do it for the purpose of language learning. As a consequence, they may become discouraged and demotivated during English classes in school. After an extensive literature review about motivation/demotivation in second language learning in general, and the current media landscape in relation to English language learning in particular, this article discusses problems with learner demotivation, the empowerment of teachers, and the development of teaching practices in order to meet the new challenges. The discussion draws on the authors’ experiences of in-service training programs (related to language teaching methodology) and on the results of a small-scale survey carried out among English teachers participating in Boost for teachers (Lärarlyftet).

Language-related computer use: Focus on young L2 English learners in Sweden

AbstractThis paper presents findings from a study investigating young English language learners (YELLs) in Sweden in 4th grade (N = 76, aged 10–11). Data were collected with the help of a questionnaire and a one-week language diary. The main purpose was to examine the learners’ L2 English language-related activities outside of school in general, and their use of computers and engagement in playing digital games in particular. A comparison is made between language-related activities in English, Swedish, and other languages. Another purpose was to see whether there is a relationship between playing digital games and (a) gender, (b) L1, (c) motivation for learning English, (d) self-assessed English ability, and (e) self-reported strategies for speaking English. In order to do so, the sample was divided into three digital game groups, (1) non-gamers, (2) moderate, and (3) frequent gamers (≥4 hours/week), based on diary data (using self-reported times for playing digital games in English). Results showed that YELLs are extensively involved in extramural English (EE) activities (M = 7.2 hrs/w). There are statistically significant gender differences, boys (11.5 hrs/w) and girls (5.1 hrs/w; p < .01), the reason being boys’ greater time investment in digital gaming and watching films. The girls, on the other hand, spent significantly more time on pastime language-related activities in Swedish (11.5 hrs/w) than the boys (8.0 hrs/w; p < .05), the reason being girls’ greater time investment in facebooking. Investigation of the digital game groups revealed that group (1) was predominantly female, (2) a mix, and (3) predominantly male. YELLs with an L1 other than Swedish were overrepresented in group (3). Motivation and self-assessed English ability were high across all groups. Finally, regarding the self-reported strategies, code-switching to one's L1 was more commonly reported by non- and moderate gamers than frequent gamers.

Classroom vs. Extramural English: Teachers Dealing with Demotivation

AbstractThe present article explores challenges facing EFL classrooms in Sweden due to new informal out‐of‐school language learning settings created by the current media landscape. A recent Swedish national evaluation identifies that a problematic situation in secondary school EFL classrooms has emerged. EFL teachers find it difficult to bridge the gap (cf. Olsson 2011) between the English used in school and the English used outside of school, extramural English (Sundqvist 2009). As a consequence, the pupils (aged 13–16) become discouraged and demotivated. Based on experiences from language teaching methodology in‐service training programs and a small‐scale survey, the article discusses the problem with demotivation, the empowerment of EFL teachers, and the development of teaching practices in order to meet the new challenges. The article argues that the challenges that Swedish EFL teachers currently meet can be viewed as an early indication that similar challenges are likely to emerge also in EFL classrooms elsewhere.