Wild-type Extracts Research Articles

DWA1 and DWA2, Two Arabidopsis DWD Protein Components of CUL4-Based E3 Ligases, Act Together as Negative Regulators in ABA Signal Transduction

To elucidate potential roles of CUL4-DDB1-DWD (for Cullin 4-Damaged DNA Binding1-DDB1 binding WD40) E3 ligases in abscisic acid (ABA) signaling, we examined ABA sensitivities of T-DNA mutants of a number of Arabidopsis thaliana DWD genes, which encode substrate receptors for CUL4 E3 ligases. Mutants in two DWD genes, DWA1 and DWA2 (DWD hypersensitive to ABA1 and 2), had ABA-hypersensitive phenotypes. Both proteins interacted with DDB1 in yeast two-hybrid assays and associated with DDB1 and CUL4 in vivo, implying they could form CUL4-based complexes. Several ABA-responsive genes were hyperinduced in both mutants, and the ABA-responsive transcription factors ABA INSENSITIVE 5 (ABI5) and MYC2 accumulated to high levels in the mutants after ABA treatment. Moreover, ABI5 interacted with DWA1 and DWA2 in vivo. Cell-free degradation assays showed ABI5 was degraded more slowly in dwa1 and dwa2 than in wild-type cell extracts. Therefore, DWA1 and/or DWA2 may be the substrate receptors for a CUL4 E3 ligase that targets ABI5 for degradation. Our data indicate that DWA1 and DWA2 can directly interact with each other, and their double mutants exhibited enhanced ABA and NaCl hypersensitivities, implying they can act together. This report thus describes a previously unknown heterodimeric cooperation between two independent substrate receptors for CUL4-based E3 ligases.

Two novel methyltransferases acting upon eukaryotic elongation factor 1A in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) is an abundant cytosolic protein in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and is well conserved amongst species. This protein undergoes multiple posttranslational modifications, including the N-methylation of four side chain lysine residues. However, the enzyme(s) responsible for catalyzing these modifications have remained elusive. Here we show by intact protein mass spectrometry that deletion of either of two genes coding for putative methyltransferases results in a loss in mass of eEF1A. Deletion of the YHL039W gene, a member of the SET domain subfamily including cytochrome c and ribosomal protein lysine methyltransferases, results in an eEF1A mass loss corresponding to a single methyl group. Deletion in the YIL064W/ SEE1 gene, encoding a well conserved seven beta strand methyltransferase sequence, has been shown previously to affect vesicle transport; in this work we show that deletion results in the loss of two methyl group equivalents from eEF1A. We find that deletion of thirty-five other putative and established SET domain and seven beta strand methyltransferases has no effect on the mass of eEF1A. Finally, we show that wild type extracts, but not YIL064W/ SEE1 mutant extracts, can catalyze the S-adenosylmethionine-dependent in vitro methylation of hypomethylated eEF1A. We suggest that YHL039W (now designated EFM1 for elongation factor methyltransferase 1) and YIL064W/ SEE1 encode distinct eEF1A methyltransferases that respectively monomethylate and dimethylate this protein at lysine residues.

Arabidopsis AtSerpin1, Crystal Structure and in Vivo Interaction with Its Target Protease RESPONSIVE TO DESICCATION-21 (RD21)

In animals, protease inhibitors of the serpin family are associated with many physiological processes, including blood coagulation and innate immunity. Serpins feature a reactive center loop (RCL), which displays a protease target sequence as a bait. RCL cleavage results in an irreversible, covalent serpin-protease complex. AtSerpin1 is an Arabidopsis protease inhibitor that is expressed ubiquitously throughout the plant. The x-ray crystal structure of recombinant AtSerpin1 in its native stressed conformation was determined at 2.2 A. The electrostatic surface potential below the RCL was found to be highly positive, whereas the breach region critical for RCL insertion is an unusually open structure. AtSerpin1 accumulates in plants as a full-length and a cleaved form. Fractionation of seedling extracts by nonreducing SDS-PAGE revealed the presence of an additional slower migrating complex that was absent when leaves were treated with the specific cysteine protease inhibitor L-trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido (4-guanidino)butane. Significantly, RESPONSIVE TO DESICCATION-21 (RD21) was the major protease labeled with the L-trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido (4-guanidino)butane derivative DCG-04 in wild type extracts but not in extracts of mutant plants constitutively overexpressing AtSerpin1, indicating competition. Fractionation by nonreducing SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblotting with RD21-specific antibody revealed that the protease accumulated both as a free enzyme and in a complex with AtSerpin1. Importantly, both RD21 and AtSerpin1 knock-out mutants lacked the serpin-protease complex. The results establish that the major Arabidopsis plant serpin interacts with RD21. This is the first report of the structure and in vivo interaction of a plant serpin with its target protease.

Autohydrolysis of plant xylans by apoplastic expression of thermophilic bacterial endo‐xylanases

The genes encoding the two endo-xylanases XynA and XynB from the thermophilic bacterium Dictyoglomus thermophilum were codon optimized for expression in plants. Both xylanases were designed to be constitutively expressed under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter and targeted to the apoplast. Transient expression in tobacco and stable expression in transgenic Arabidopsis showed that both enzymes were expressed in an active form with temperature optima at 85 degrees C. Transgenic Arabidopsis accumulating heterologous endo-xylanases appeared phenotypically normal and were fully fertile. The highest xylanase activity in Arabidopsis was found in dry stems indicating that the enzymes were not degraded during stem senescence. High levels of enzyme activity were maintained in cell-free extracts from dry transgenic stems during incubation at 85 degrees C for 24 h. Analysis of cell wall polysaccharides after heat treatment of wildtype and transgenic extracts from dry stems showed a decrease in the molecular weight of xylans from transgenic stems.

ATPase Domain and Interdomain Linker Play a Key Role in Aggregation of Mitochondrial Hsp70 Chaperone Ssc1

The co-chaperone Hep1 is required to prevent the aggregation of mitochondrial Hsp70 proteins. We have analyzed the interaction of Hep1 with mitochondrial Hsp70 (Ssc1) and the determinants in Ssc1 that make it prone to aggregation. The ATPase and peptide binding domain (PBD) of Hsp70 proteins are connected by a linker segment that mediates interdomain communication between the domains. We show here that the minimal Hep1 binding entity of Ssc1 consists of the ATPase domain and the interdomain linker. In the absence of Hep1, the ATPase domain with the interdomain linker had the tendency to aggregate, in contrast to the ATPase domain with the mutated linker segment or without linker, and in contrast to the PBD. The closest homolog of Ssc1, bacterial DnaK, and a Ssc1 chimera, in which a segment of the ATPase domain of Ssc1 was replaced by the corresponding segment from DnaK, did not aggregate in Delta hep1 mitochondria. The propensity to aggregate appears to be a specific property of the mitochondrial Hsp70 proteins. The ATPase domain in combination with the interdomain linker is crucial for aggregation of Ssc1. In conclusion, our results suggest that interdomain communication makes Ssc1 prone to aggregation. Hep1 counteracts aggregation by binding to this aggregation-prone conformer.

Bicaudal-D binds clathrin heavy chain to promote its transport and augments synaptic vesicle recycling

Cargo transport by microtubule-based motors is essential for cell organisation and function. The Bicaudal-D (BicD) protein participates in the transport of a subset of cargoes by the minus-end-directed motor dynein, although the full extent of its functions is unclear. In this study, we report that in Drosophila zygotic BicD function is only obligatory in the nervous system. Clathrin heavy chain (Chc), a major constituent of coated pits and vesicles, is the most abundant protein co-precipitated with BicD from head extracts. BicD binds Chc directly and interacts genetically with components of the pathway for clathrin-mediated membrane trafficking. Directed transport and subcellular localisation of Chc is strongly perturbed in BicD mutant presynaptic boutons. Functional assays show that BicD and dynein are essential for the maintenance of normal levels of neurotransmission specifically during high-frequency electrical stimulation and that this is associated with a reduced rate of recycling of internalised synaptic membrane. Our results implicate BicD as a new player in clathrin-associated trafficking processes and show a novel requirement for microtubule-based motor transport in the synaptic vesicle cycle.

Suppression of hypernodulation in soybean by a leaf‐extracted, NARK‐ and Nod factor‐dependent, low molecular mass fraction

*Legumes regulate the number of nodules they form via a process called autoregulation of nodulation (AON). This involves a shoot-derived inhibitor (SDI) molecule that is synthesized in the shoots and is transported down to the roots where it inhibits further nodule development. *To characterize SDI, we developed a novel feeding bioassay. This involved feeding aqueous leaf extracts directly into the petiole of hypernodulating and supernodulating nark mutant plants of Glycine max (soybean). These mutants normally exhibit an increased nodulation phenotype because SDI is not produced and thus AON is nonfunctional. *Feeding wild-type leaf extracts presumed to contain SDI was successful in suppressing the increased nodulation phenotype, whereas feeding with Gmnark leaf extracts did not. Suppression activity was inoculation-dependent, Nod factor-dependent, required GmNARK activity, and was heat-, Proteinase K- and ribonuclease A-resistant. Wild-type extracts maintained suppressive activity even at a ninefold dilution. Sinorhizobium meliloti-inoculated Medicago truncatula leaf extracts from wild-type, but not from supernodulating mutant Mtsunn, suppressed hypernodulation in soybean. *Our results demonstrate that the petiole feeding bioassay is an efficient and effective technique to introduce aqueous extracts into plants. They also demonstrate that SDI is a small compound with an apparent molecular mass of < 1000 Da and is unlikely to be a protein or an RNA molecule.

DesT coordinates the expression of anaerobic and aerobic pathways for unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The fabA and fabB genes are responsible for anaerobic unsaturated fatty acid formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Expression of the fabAB operon was repressed by exogenous unsaturated fatty acids, and DNA sequences upstream of the translational start site were used to affinity purify DesT. The single protein interaction with the fabAB promoter detected in wild-type cell extracts was absent in the desT deletion strain, as was the repression of fabAB expression by unsaturated fatty acids. Thus, DesT senses the overall composition of the acyl-coenzyme A pool to coordinate the expression of the operons for the anaerobic (fabAB) and aerobic (desCB) pathways for unsaturated fatty acid synthesis.

Coordination between Polymerase β and FEN1 Can Modulate CAG Repeat Expansion

The oxidized DNA base 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) is implicated in neuronal CAG repeat expansion associated with Huntington disease, yet it is unclear how such a DNA base lesion and its repair might cause the expansion. Here, we discovered size-limited expansion of CAG repeats during repair of 8-oxoG in a wild-type mouse cell extract. This expansion was deficient in extracts from cells lacking pol beta and HMGB1. We demonstrate that expansion is mediated through pol beta multinucleotide gap-filling DNA synthesis during long-patch base excision repair. Unexpectedly, FEN1 promotes expansion by facilitating ligation of hairpins formed by strand slippage. This alternate role of FEN1 and the polymerase beta (pol beta) multinucleotide gap-filling synthesis is the result of uncoupling of the usual coordination between pol beta and FEN1. HMGB1 probably promotes expansion by stimulating APE1 and FEN1 in forming single strand breaks and ligatable nicks, respectively. This is the first report illustrating that disruption of pol beta and FEN1 coordination during long-patch BER results in CAG repeat expansion.

Translational Repression of Cyclin E Prevents Precocious Mitosis and Embryonic Gene Activation during C. elegans Meiosis

Germ cells, the cells that give rise to sperm and egg, maintain the potential to recreate all cell types in a new individual. This wide developmental potential, or totipotency, is manifested in unusual tumors called teratomas, in which germ cells undergo somatic differentiation. Although recent studies have implicated RNA regulation, the mechanism that normally prevents the loss of germ cell identity remains unexplained. In C. elegans, a teratoma is induced in the absence of the conserved RNA-binding protein GLD-1. Here, we demonstrate that GLD-1 represses translation of CYE-1/cyclin E during meiotic prophase, which prevents germ cells from re-entering mitosis and inducing embryonic-like transcription. We describe a mechanism that prevents precocious mitosis in germ cells undergoing meiosis, propose that this mechanism maintains germ cell identity by delaying the onset of embryonic gene activation until after fertilization, and provide a paradigm for the possible origin of human teratomas.

A shortcut to identifying small molecule signals that regulate behavior and development in Caenorhabditis elegans

Small molecule metabolites play important roles in Caenorhabditis elegans biology, but effective approaches for identifying their chemical structures are lacking. Recent studies revealed that a family of glycosides, the ascarosides, differentially regulate C. elegans development and behavior. Low concentrations of ascarosides attract males and thus appear to be part of the C. elegans sex pheromone, whereas higher concentrations induce developmental arrest at the dauer stage, an alternative, nonaging larval stage. The ascarosides act synergistically, which presented challenges for their identification via traditional activity-guided fractionation. As a result the chemical characterization of the dauer and male attracting pheromones remained incomplete. Here, we describe the identification of several additional pheromone components by using a recently developed NMR-spectroscopic approach, differential analysis by 2D NMR spectroscopy (DANS), which simplifies linking small molecule metabolites with their biological function. DANS-based comparison of wild-type C. elegans and a signaling-deficient mutant, daf-22, enabled identification of 3 known and 4 previously undescribed ascarosides, including a compound that features a p-aminobenzoic acid subunit. Biological testing of synthetic samples of these compounds revealed additional evidence for synergy and provided insights into structure-activity relationships. Using a combination of the three most active ascarosides allowed full reconstitution of the male-attracting activity of wild-type pheromone extract. Our results highlight the efficacy of DANS as a method for identifying small-molecule metabolites and placing them within a specific genetic context. This study further supports the hypothesis that ascarosides represent a structurally diverse set of nematode signaling molecules regulating major life history traits.

Safety assessment of leaf curl virus resistant tomato developed using viral derived sequences

Genetic engineering of food crops has significantly influenced the agricultural productivity over the past two decades. It has proved a valuable tool, offering crops with higher yields, improved nutritional quality, resistance against pesticides, herbicides and tolerance against abiotic stresses. However, the safety assessment of genetically engineered (GE) crops is prerequisite before introduction into human food chain. The present study was aimed to assess the toxicity and allergenicity of leaf curl virus resistant GE tomato compared to its wild-type species. Balb/c mice fed with genetically engineered or wild-type tomato did not show significant differences in growth, body weight (P > 0.05) and food consumption when compared with control mice. Values for serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, urea and cholesterol were comparable in GE and wild-type tomato fed mice. Mice immunized with GE or wild-type tomato extract showed low IgE response. Lung histology of ovalbumin fed mice showed bronchoconstriction with eosinophilic infiltration whereas GE or wild-type tomato showed no cellular infiltration with normal airways. Genetically engineered and wild-type tomato sensitized mice demonstrated similar IL-4 release in splenic cell culture supernatant. GE and wild tomato extract on ELISA showed comparable IgE binding (P > 0.05) with food allergic patients' sera. In conclusion, genetically engineered tomato showed no toxicity in mice and allergenicity is similar to the wild-type tomato.

A Novel Antimicrobial Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein in the Cornea

In an earlier gene expression study, the authors identified a novel antimicrobial gene, Peptidoglycan recognition protein 1 (Pglyrp1), in the mouse cornea. Here the expression of the Pglyrp1 transcript and the encoded protein, PGLYRP1, in the cornea was investigated. The role of PGLYRP1 in the cornea was further investigated using wild-type and Pglyrp1-deficient mice. This is the first report of this antimicrobial protein in the cornea. PGLYRP1 was detected in the cornea and was further localized to the epithelium by immunohistology, confocal microscopy, immunoblotting, and real-time PCR. The role of PGLYRP1 in the cornea was investigated by comparing the response of wild-type and Pglyrp1(-/-) mice to corneal epithelial wounds and Pseudomonas aeruginosa-mediated corneal infections. The antibacterial effects of corneal PGLYRP1 were assayed by measuring bacterial growth in vitro, in the presence of wild-type corneal epithelial extracts, before and after antibody-mediated blocking of PGLYRP1. PGLYRP1 is expressed at high levels in the mouse corneal epithelium. PGLYRP1 was localized to the mouse corneal epithelium and the human corneal epithelium. The Pglyrp1(-/-) mouse shows delayed healing and poor clearing of bacterial keratitis; in vitro its epithelial protein extract shows reduced bacteriostatic activity compared with wild-type mice. PGLYRP1 is a novel antimicrobial protein of the corneal epithelium and protects the ocular surface from bacterial infections.

The Essential N Terminus of the Pta1 Scaffold Protein Is Required for snoRNA Transcription Termination and Ssu72 Function but Is Dispensable for Pre-mRNA 3′-End Processing

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pta1 is a component of the cleavage/polyadenylation factor (CPF) 3'-end processing complex and functions in pre-mRNA cleavage, poly(A) addition, and transcription termination. In this study, we investigated the role of the N-terminal region of Pta1 in transcription and processing. We report that a deletion of the first 75 amino acids (pta1-Delta75) causes thermosensitive growth, while the deletion of an additional 25 amino acids is lethal. The pta1-Delta75 mutant is defective for snoRNA termination, RNA polymerase II C-terminal domain Ser5-P dephosphorylation, and gene looping but is fully functional for mRNA 3'-end processing. Furthermore, different regions of Pta1 interact with the CPF subunits Ssu72, Pti1, and Ysh1, supporting the idea that Pta1 acts as a scaffold to organize CPF. The first 300 amino acids of Pta1 are sufficient for interactions with Ssu72, which is needed for pre-mRNA cleavage. By the degron-mediated depletion of Pta1, we show that the removal of this essential region leads to a loss of Ssu72, yet surprisingly, in vitro cleavage and polyadenylation remain efficient. In addition, a fragment containing amino acids 1 to 300 suppresses 3'-end processing in wild-type extracts. These findings suggest that the amino terminus of Pta1 has an inhibitory effect and that this effect can be neutralized through the interaction with Ssu72.

Role of Ca2+/Calmodulin-dependent Protein Kinase II in Drosophila Photoreceptors

Ca(2+) modulates the visual response in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In Drosophila photoreceptors, an increase of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) mimics light adaptation. Little is known regarding the mechanism, however. We explored the role of the sole Drosophila Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) to mediate light adaptation. CaMKII has been implicated in the phosphorylation of arrestin 2 (Arr2). However, the functional significance of Arr2 phosphorylation remains debatable. We identified retinal CaMKII by anti-CaMKII antibodies and by its Ca(2+)-dependent autophosphorylation. Moreover, we show that phosphorylation of CaMKII is greatly enhanced by okadaic acid, and indeed, purified PP2A catalyzes the dephosphorylation of CaMKII. Significantly, we demonstrate that anti-CaMKII antibodies co-immunoprecipitate, and CaMKII fusion proteins pull down the catalytic subunit of PP2A from fly extracts, indicating that PP2A interacts with CaMKII to form a protein complex. To investigate the function of CaMKII in photoreceptors, we show that suppression of CaMKII in transgenic flies affects light adaptation and increases prolonged depolarizing afterpotential amplitude, whereas a reduced PP2A activity brings about reduced prolonged depolarizing afterpotential amplitude. Taken together, we conclude that CaMKII is involved in the negative regulation of the visual response affecting light adaptation, possibly by catalyzing phosphorylation of Arr2. Moreover, the CaMKII activity appears tightly regulated by the co-localized PP2A.

An Alternatively Spliced Isoform of Non-muscle Myosin II-C Is Not Regulated by Myosin Light Chain Phosphorylation

We report a novel isoform of non-muscle myosin II-C (NM II-C), NM II-C2, that is generated by alternative splicing of an exon, C2, encoding 41 amino acids in mice (33 in humans). The 41 amino acids are inserted into loop 2 of the NM II-C heavy chain within the actin binding region. Unlike most vertebrate non-muscle and smooth muscle myosin IIs, baculovirus-expressed mouse heavy meromyosin (HMM) II-C2 demonstrates no requirement for regulatory myosin light chain (MLC(20)) phosphorylation for maximum actin-activated MgATPase activity or maximum in vitro motility as measured by the sliding actin filament assay. In contrast, noninserted HMM II-C0 and another alternatively spliced isoform HMM II-C1, which contains 8 amino acids inserted into loop 1, are dependent on MLC(20) phosphorylation for both actin-activated MgATPase activity and in vitro motility ( Kim, K. Y., Kovacs, M., Kawamoto, S., Sellers, J. R., and Adelstein, R. S. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280, 22769-22775 ). HMM II-C1C2, which contains both the C1 and C2 inserts, does not require MLC(20) phosphorylation for full activity similar to HMM II-C2. These constitutively active C2-inserted isoforms of NM II-C are expressed only in neuronal tissue. This is in contrast to NM II-C1 and NM II-C0, both of which are ubiquitously expressed. Full-length NM II-C2-GFP expressed in COS-7 cells localizes to filaments in interphase cells and to the cytokinetic ring in dividing cells.

Elucidating the Mechanisms of Assembly and Subunit Interaction of the Cellulose Synthase Complex of Arabidopsis Secondary Cell Walls

Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer in nature; however, questions relating to the biochemistry of its synthesis including the structure of the cellulose synthase complex (CSC) can only be answered by the purification of a fully functional complex. Despite its importance, this goal remains elusive. The work described here utilizes epitope tagging of cellulose synthase A (CESA) proteins that are known components of the CSC. To avoid problems associated with preferential purification of CESA monomers, we developed a strategy based on dual epitope tagging of the CESA7 protein to select for CESA multimers. With this approach, we used a two-step purification that preferentially selected for larger CESA oligomers. These preparations consisted solely of the three known secondary cell wall CESA proteins CESA4, CESA7, and CESA8. No additional CESA isoforms or other proteins were identified. The data are consistent with a model in which CESA protein homodimerization occurs prior to formation of larger CESA oligomers. This suggests that the three different CESA proteins undergo dimerization independently, but the presence of all three subunits is required for higher order oligomerization. Analysis of purified CESA complex and crude extracts suggests that disulfide bonds and noncovalent interactions contribute to the stability of the CESA subunit interactions. These results demonstrate that this approach will provide an excellent framework for future detailed analysis of the CSC.

Characterization of a Monoclonal Antibody Directed against Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium and Serovar [4,5,12:i:−

Flagellar extracts of Salmonella enterica serovars expressing phase 2 H1 antigenic complex (H:1,2, H:1,5, H:1,6, and H:1,7) and a mutant flagellin obtained by site-directed mutagenesis of the fljB gene from serovar Typhimurium at codon 218, transforming threonine to alanine, expressed in Escherichia coli (fljB218(A)) were used to analyze the H1 antigenic complex. Cross-reactions were detected by Western blotting and dot blotting using commercial polyclonal antibodies against the different wild-type extracts and mutant FljB218(A). Therefore, we produced a monoclonal antibody (MAb), 23D4, isotyped as immunoglobulin M, against H:1,2 S. enterica serovar Typhimurium flagellin. The mutant flagellin was not recognized by this MAb. When a large number of phase 1 and phase 2 flagellin antigens of different serovars were used to characterize the 23D4 MAb, only extracts of serovars Typhimurium and [4,5,12:i:-] reacted. The protein composition of phase 1 and phase 2 extracts and highly purified H:1,2 flagellin from serovar Typhimurium strain LT2 and extract of strain 286 (serovar [4,5,12:i:-]), which reacted with the MAb, was studied. Phase 2 flagellin (FljB(H:1,2)) was detected in phase 1 and phase 2 flagellar heat extracts of serovar Typhimurium and was the single protein identified in all spots of purified H:1,2 flagellin. FliC, FlgK, and other proteins were detected in some immunoreactive spots and in the flagellar extract of serovar [4,5,12:i:-]. Immunoelectron microscopy of complete bacteria with 23D4 showed MAb attachment at the base of flagella, although the MAb failed to recognize the filament of flagella. Nevertheless, the results obtained by the other immunological tests (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blotting, and dot blotting) indicate a reaction against flagellins. The epitopes could also be shared by other proteins on spots where FljB is not present, such as aminopeptidase B, isocitrate lyase, InvE, EF-TuA, enolase, DnaK, and others. In conclusion, MAb 23D4 can be useful for detection and diagnostic purposes of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium and serovar [4,5,12:i:-] and could be also helpful for epitope characterization of flagellum-associated antigens.

Pias3-Dependent SUMOylation Directs Rod Photoreceptor Development

Specification of retinal rod photoreceptors is determined by several different transcription factors that activate expression of rod-specific genes and repress expression of cone photoreceptor-specific genes. The mechanism by which this dual regulation occurs is unclear. We have found that Pias3, a transcriptional coregulator and E3 SUMO ligase that is selectively expressed in developing photoreceptors, promotes the differentiation of rod photoreceptors while preventing rods from adopting cone photoreceptor-like characteristics. Pias3 binds the photoreceptor-specific transcription factors Crx and Nr2e3 and is specifically targeted to the promoters of photoreceptor-specific genes. Pias3 SUMOylates Nr2e3, converting it into a potent repressor of cone-specific gene expression. Rod- and cone-specific promoters are bound by hyperSUMOylated proteins in rod photoreceptors, and blocking SUMOylation in photoreceptors results in cells with morphological and molecular features of cones and an absence of rod-specific markers. Our data thus identify Pias3-mediated SUMOylation of photoreceptor-specific transcription factors as a key mechanism of rod specification.

Establishment of a high content assay for the identification and characterisation of bioactivities in crude bacterial extracts that interfere with the eukaryotic cell cycle

High content microscopy as a screening tool to identify bioactive agents has provided researchers with the ability to characterise biological activities at the level of single cells. Here, we describe the development and the application of a high content screening assay for the identification and characterisation of cytostatic bioactivities from Myxobacteria extracts. In an automated microscopy assay Sf9 insect cells were visualised utilising the stains bisbenzimide Hoechst 33342, calcein AM, and propidium iodide. Imaging data were processed by the ScanR Analysis-software to determine the ploidy and vitality of each cell and to quantify cell populations. More than 98% of the Sf9 cells were viable and the culture consisted of diploid (∼30%), tetraploid (∼60%), polyploidic (<10%) and apoptotic (<5%) cells. Treatment with the reference substances blasticidin, colchicine, paclitaxel, and cytochalasin D induced changes in ploidy and vitality, which were characteristic for the respective bioactive substance. Furthermore, crude extracts from the chivosazole producing Myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum So ce56 induced an increase of polyploid cells and a decrease in total cell count, while a mutant producing nearly no chivosazole triggered none of these effects. Purified chivosazole induced the same effects as the wild type extract. Similar effects have been observed for the reference compound cytochalasin D. On the basis of this assay, crude extracts of ten different Myxobacteria cultures were screened. Three extracts exhibited strong cytotoxic activities, further five extracts induced weak changes in the ploidy distribution, and two extracts showed no detectable effect within the assay. Therefore, this robust assay provides the ability to discover and characterise cytotoxic and cytostatic bioactivities in crude bacterial extracts.