Extraction Of Chitin Research Articles

Sequential Extraction of Valuable Bio-Products from Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Processing Discards Using Eco-Friendly Methods.

Green extraction methods using a combination of mechanical, enzymatic, and green chemical treatments were evaluated for the sequential extraction of carotenoid pigments, protein, and chitin from crab processing discards. Key objectives included avoiding the use of hazardous chemical solvents, conducting as close to a 100% green extraction as possible, and developing simple processes to facilitate implementation into processing plants without the need for complicated and expensive equipment. Three crab bio-products were obtained: pigmented vegetable oil, pigmented protein powder, and chitin. Carotenoid extractions were performed using vegetable oils (corn, canola, and sunflower oils), giving between 24.85% and 37.93% astaxanthin recovery. Citric acid was used to demineralize the remaining material and afforded a pigmented protein powder. Three different proteases were used to deproteinate and isolate chitin in yields between 17.06% and 19.15%. The chitin was still highly colored and therefore decolorization was attempted using hydrogen peroxide. Characterization studies were conducted on each of the crab bio-products isolated including powder X-ray diffraction analysis on the chitin (80.18% crystallinity index, CI, achieved using green methods). Overall, three valuable bio-products could be obtained but further research is needed to obtain pigment-free chitin in an environmentally friendly manner.

Elicitation of medicinally-valuable secondary metabolites, enzymatic, and antioxidant activity using chitin and yeast extract in callus cultures of Ammi visnaga L.

Elicitation of medicinally-valuable secondary metabolites, enzymatic, and antioxidant activity using chitin and yeast extract in callus cultures of Ammi visnaga L.

Microbial chitin extraction and characterization from green tiger shrimp waste: A comparative study of culture mediums along with bioprocess optimization

This research aims to introduce a low-cost, non-commercial culture medium and optimize the operating conditions for biological chitin extraction from green tiger shrimp waste in the Persian Gulf zone. For this purpose, the two most commonly used microorganisms, Bacillus licheniformis and Lactobacillus plantarum, were obtained to deproteinize and demineralize the shrimp shells within both culture mediums using a successive two-stage process. It was found that the proposed non-commercial culture medium was more efficient than the purchased and ready-to-use commercial medium and increased deproteinization and demineralization efficiency by 9 % and 11 %, respectively. According to the optimization, which was performed using a response surface methodology based on a central composite design, the demineralization model is more complicated than the deproteinization model. The presented model predicted deproteinization and demineralization yields with good accuracy. The FTIR results revealed that shrimp shells and chitin have similar main functional groups, while the degree of acetylation of the extracted chitin was 62.26 %. SEM results illustrated the formation of microfibrils and the chitin structure's porosity. The XRD data showed that the crystallinity index of chitin was 93.9 %. Besides, the thermal stability of the extracted chitin, with a maximum degradation temperature of 380 °C is comparable with the literature data.

Comparative study on chitin content of Bangladeshi edible and medicinal mushrooms

Chitin provides immense beneficial roles to the humanity and environment. Most of the chitin extracted worldwide are from the shell of the crustaceans. An alternative source of chitin has been observed as the number of crustaceans has been dilapidating. Here, extraction of chitin from the edible and medicinal macrofungi, mushrooms, have been described. This is a novel approach to meet the ever increasing chitin demand worldwide. Among four mushroom species (Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes and Ganoderma lucidum), the reishi mushroom or ling zhi (G. lucidum) had been found containing the highest amount of chitin on percentage basis of dried mushroom powder. Chitin content trend observed in this study was: G. lucidum (44%) > L. edodes (35%) > A. bisporus (18%) > P. ostreatus (10%). Thus, mushrooms could be considered as important source of chitin and its deacetylated product, chitosan. In this way, mushrooms could aid in biomedical and environmental intervention through suppliance of chitin and chitosan.

The Isotherm Studies of Cu (II) Adsorption in Kolong Bangka’s Water onto NaOH-Deacetylated Shrimp Shells Waste Chitin

Isotherm models of Cu (II) adsorption in Kolong Bangka’s water onto NaOH-deacetylated shrimp shells waste chitin was studied. The extraction of chitin was carried out through three steps: deproteinization, demineralization and decolorization. The deacetylated shrimp shells waste chitin (DA-SW chitin) were prepared by the reaction of DA-SW chitin with NaOH at varying concentrations of 20, 40 and 60% (%W) with stirring for 1 hour at room suhue where the degree of deacetylation for varying NaOH concentrations were 65.72, 67.44 and 88.98%, respectively based on our previous research. Increasing the NaOH concentration causes the diffusion rate of OH- increase thus realizing the effectiveness of OH- attack on the carbonyl carbon group in chitin acetamide increasing so that the chitin deacetylation process becomes more effective. In order to study adsorbent equilibrium behaviour, Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models were used based on Cu (II) adsorption data with variations in contact time 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. The results showed that the concentration of Cu (II) decreased with the increase of the degree of deacetylation and contact time. The optimum condition for the percentage of Cu (II) adsorption was achieved in DA-SW chitin with NaOH 60% (where the degree of deacetylation was 88.98%) during 30 minutes was 97.19%. The Cu (II) adsorption isotherm model in Kolong Bangka water onto DA-SW chitin is represented by the Freundlich isotherm model where the Cu (II) adsorption mechanism onto DA-SW chitin causes the formation of multilayer surface which may due to Van der Waals force.

Simultaneous Preparation of Chitin and Flavor Protein Hydrolysates from the By-Products of Shrimp Processing by One-Step Fermentation with Lactobacillus fermuntum.

One-step fermentation, inoculated with Lactobacillus fermentum (L. fermentum) in shrimp by-products, was carried out to obtain chitin and flavor protein hydrolysates at the same time. The fermentation conditions were optimized using response surface methodology, resulting in chitin with a demineralization rate of 89.48%, a deproteinization rate of 85.11%, and a chitin yield of 16.3%. The surface of chitin after fermentation was shown to be not dense, and there were a lot of pores. According to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction patterns, the fermented chitin belonged to α-chitin. More than 60 volatiles were identified from the fermentation broth after chitin extraction using gas chromatography-ion transfer spectrometry analysis. L. fermentum fermentation decreased the intensities of volatile compounds related to unsaturated fatty acid oxidation or amino acid deamination. By contrast, much more pleasant flavors related to fruity and roasted aroma were all enhanced in the fermentation broth. Our results suggest an efficient one-step fermentation technique to recover chitin and to increase aroma and flavor constituents from shrimp by-products.

Chitosan: A Potential Biopolymer in Drug Delivery and Biomedical Applications.

Chitosan, a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide derived from chitin, has surfaced as a material of promise for drug delivery and biomedical applications. Different chitin and chitosan extraction techniques can produce materials with unique properties, which can be further modified to enhance their bioactivities. Chitosan-based drug delivery systems have been developed for various routes of administration, including oral, ophthalmic, transdermal, nasal, and vaginal, allowing for targeted and sustained release of drugs. Additionally, chitosan has been used in numerous biomedical applications, such as bone regeneration, cartilage tissue regeneration, cardiac tissue regeneration, corneal regeneration, periodontal tissue regeneration, and wound healing. Moreover, chitosan has also been utilized in gene delivery, bioimaging, vaccination, and cosmeceutical applications. Modified chitosan derivatives have been developed to improve their biocompatibility and enhance their properties, resulting in innovative materials with promising potentials in various biomedical applications. This article summarizes the recent findings on chitosan and its application in drug delivery and biomedical science.

The Preparation and Physiochemical Characterization of Tenebrio molitor Chitin Using Alcalase.

Chitin is mostly produced from crustaceans, but it is difficult to supply raw materials due to marine pollution, and the commonly used chemical chitin extraction method is not environmentally friendly. Therefore, this study aims to establish a chitin extraction process using enzymes and to develop edible insect-derived chitin as an eco-friendly new material. The response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimal conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis. The optimal conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis by RSM were determined to be the substrate concentration (7.5%), enzyme concentration (80 μL/g), and reaction time (24 h). The solubility and DDA of the mealworm chitosan were 45% and 37%, respectively, and those of the commercial chitosan were 61% and 57%, respectively. In regard to the thermodynamic properties, the exothermic peak of mealworm chitin was similar to that of commercial chitin. In the FT-IR spectrum, a band was observed in mealworm chitin corresponding to the C=O of the NHCOCH3 group at 1645 cm-1, but this band showed low-intensity C=O in the mealworm chitosan due to deacetylation. Collectively, mealworm chitosan shows almost similar physical and chemical properties to commercial chitosan. Therefore, it is shown that an eco-friendly process can be introduced into chitosan production by using enzyme-extracted mealworms for chitin/chitosan production.

Selective purification of quercetin using covalently crosslinked chitosan

AbstractQuercetin is known for potent biomedical applications and selective purification of quercetin is the need of the hour. To achieve selective adsorption of quercetin, we have prepared chitosan resin grafted with quercetin. Chitosan is a polysaccharide that is derived from chitin. The shells of shrimp, crabs, and lobster are crucial for the extraction of chitin. After cellulose, chitin was the second most abundant polysaccharide and chitosan was derived by deacetylation of chitin. Chitosan was justified to be a better bio‐adsorbent because of its low cost and outstanding chelating efficiency. Chitosan was covalently cross‐linked to improve its mechanical stability. Herein, Quercetin grafted chitosan resin (QICR) was prepared, where adsorption occurs by hydrophobic interaction between 2‐phenyl‐chromones structure in resin and quercetin in bulk solution. Prepared QICR was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for confirmation of quercetin grafted in chitosan. The porosity of the prepared resin was confirmed by Brunauer‐Emmett‐Teller (BET) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis. The adsorption capacity of QICR was calculated for both static and dynamic modes and it was found to be approximately equal. The equilibrium data obtained from the adsorption studies were analyzed for isotherm models. Prepared QICR fits better with Langmuir adsorption isotherm with an R2 value of 0.98. Quercetin adsorption was analyzed for kinetic studies, in which pseudo‐second order describes the adsorption. The desorption capacity of quercetin was also calculated in dynamic mode. The present study reveals that prepared QICR would be a better choice for the selective adsorption of quercetin.

Low-intensity ultrasound combines synergistically with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei fermentation to enhance chitin extraction from crab shells

The large amounts of chitin in crab shells can be extracted for use in food and biomedical industries. But the traditional chemical-based chitin extraction uses large amounts of acid and alkali, which are environmentally harmful. The current study explored lactic acid bacteria (Lacticaseibacillus paracasei) fermentation and low-intensity ultrasound combination for crab shells chitin extraction. Our results show that intermittent low-intensity ultrasound (0.167 W/cm2) treatment for 10 min at 8 h intervals enhances bacteria growth to improve decalcification by 16.72% and deproteinization by 33.45% and shortens the fermentation time of crab shells to 48 h. Scanning electron microscopy examination of the fermented chitin revealed that the decalcification and deproteinization were more efficient with this combined treatment, whereas nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy analyses show that the extracted chitin had alpha conformation. Collectively, low-intensity ultrasound could be leveraged together with L. paracasei fermentation to enhance chitin extraction from crab shells.

Insect-Derived Chitin and Chitosan: A Still Unexploited Resource for the Edible Insect Sector

Chitin and chitosan are biopolymers that are frequently found in nature and have a broad range of applications in the food, biomedical and industrial sectors, due to their high biological activity. The primary source of chitin and chitosan is shellfish, however, shortages in the supply chain, seasonality issues in their availability, as well as ecological degradation are only a few of the problems with the main chitin resources. Due to the broad spectrum of applications for which chitin can be used, the demand for chitin and its derivatives is increasing. Therefore, the market is looking for widely available, greener alternatives to the main commercial chitin sources. Insects appear as a suitable candidate to fill this gap. During insect rearing and processing, a number of side streams are generated, e.g., exuviae of larvae and pupae, dead adults, etc. which are currently mostly discarded as waste. However, these side streams could constitute a novel and long-term supply of chitin for industrial applications. Recent research has demonstrated the suitability of several edible insect species for the production of chitin and chitosan, wherein the exoskeleton of the black soldier fly and field cricket are rich in chitin, making them a good source for chitin and chitosan extraction and purification among other farmed insect candidates. Moreover, several potential uses have been identified for insect-derived chitin and chitosan. Thus, this review aims to present recent advances in the production of chitin and chitosan from edible insects, specifically on their extraction and purification, as well as on their applications for agriculture, food and nutrition, biomedicine and bioplastic production.

Proteases and microwave treatment on the quality of chitin and chitosan produced from white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei)

AbstractThe aim of this study was to extract chitin and chitosan from shrimp shells by neutral protease‐assisted microwave multiple heating (one, two, three, and four) treatment. The structure and physicochemical properties of chitosan were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The dielectric properties of chitosan acetate solution were determined by using a PNA‐L network analyzer, and the correlation between chitosan deacetylation degree and dielectric loss was further analyzed. The results show that the degree of deacetylation of chitosan increased from 84.9% to 90.8% with the increase in the number of microwave heating treatments. Furthermore, the chitosan prepared by multiple microwave heating was smoother. The dielectric constant of chitosan solution gradually decreases with the increase of frequency, and the dielectric loss first decreases and then increases. In addition, the dielectric loss of the chitosan solution increased with the degree of deacetylation of chitosan at 2450 MHz (R2 > 0.99). Therefore, enzyme‐assisted microwave extraction of chitosan can be used to obtain high‐quality chitosan under the condition of increasing the number of heating treatments.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) Approach to Optimization of Coagulation-Flocculation of Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment Using Chitosan from Carapace of Giant Freshwater Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

The major sources of waste from aquaculture operations emanates from fish or shellfish processing and wastewater generation. A simple technique called coagulation/flocculation utilizes biowaste from aquaculture to produce chitosan coagulant for wastewater treatment. A chemical method was applied in the present study for chitin and chitosan extraction from carapace of Macrobrachium rosenbergii and subsequent application for removal of turbidity and salinity from shrimp aquaculture wastewater. Box-Behnken in RSM was used to determine the optimum operating conditions of chitosan dosage, pH, and settling time, after which quadratic models were developed and validated. Results show that 80 g of raw powder carapace yielded chitin and chitosan of 23.79% and 20.21%, respectively. The low moisture (0.38%) and ash (12.58%) content were an indication of good quality chitosan, while other properties such as water-binding capacity (WBC), fat-binding capacity (FBC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) confirmed the structure and the α-group, as well as the rough morphology of chitosan. In addition, the high solubility (71.23%) and DDA (85.20%) suggested good coagulant potentials. It was recorded in this study that 87.67% turbidity was successfully removed at 20 mg/L of chitosan dosage and 6.25 pH after 30 min settling time, while 21.43% salinity was removed at 5 mg/L of chitosan dosage, 7.5 pH, and 30 min settling time. Therefore, the process conditions adopted in this study yielded chitosan of good quality, suitable as biopolymer coagulant for aquaculture wastewater treatment.

Marine shell-based biorefinery: A sustainable solution for aquaculture waste valorization

Fossil-derived products contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Transitioning from fossil-based to bio-based products is an effective solution to this problem. There has been substantial research on how biorefinery systems can help achieve such an aim. Marine shell-based biorefinery systems have been proposed in the past, but their environmental sustainability has not been empirically proven. So, the current study examines the environmental impacts of chitosan production as a promising biomaterial in a lobster shell-based biorefinery. The life cycle assessment approach is used to estimate the environmental impact and cumulative exergy demand of chitosan production. The present study also aims at environmentally scrutinizing two non-commercial scenarios, i.e., the replacement of sodium hydroxide with potassium hydroxide (labeled as Scenario 1) and chitosan production based on the biological extraction of chitin and the replacement of sodium hydroxide with potassium hydroxide (labeled as Scenario 2) against the conventional chitosan production (labeled as the Base Scenario). The findings show that 1 kg of conventional chitosan production in the developed biorefinery leads to 8.75E-05 DALY damage to human health and 2.60E+02 PDF.m2.yr damage to ecosystem quality, mainly due to chitin and sodium hydroxide. In comparison, chitosan production based on Scenario 1 and Scenario 2 can lead to a 17% and 23% reduction in damage to human health and 6% and 11% in damage to ecosystem quality, respectively. The developed biorefinery produces chitosan with a weighted environmental impact of 43 EUR2003, which can be discounted by 8% and 13% using Scenario 1 and Scenario 2, respectively. The findings indicate that chitosan production eliminates 2.32E+02 MJ/FU exergy from nature, that approximately 54% of it is related to the “non-renewable, fossil” category. Scenarios 1 and 2 correspond to approximately a saving of 13% and a growth of 71% in exergy removal from nature than the Base scenario, respectively.

Biological extraction of chitin from fish scale waste using proteolytic bacteria Stenotrophomonas koreensis and its possible application as an active packaging material

Biological extraction of chitin from fish scale waste using proteolytic bacteria Stenotrophomonas koreensis and its possible application as an active packaging material

Microwave-assisted deep eutectic solvent extraction of chitin from crayfish shell wastes for 3D printable inks

Chitin, as one of the most abundant biopolymers in the world, has promising applications in various fields. However, critical challenges still remain in the extraction and value-added utilization of chitin in a cost-effective and environmentally-friendly manner. Herein, a time-saving, energy-efficient, and sustainable strategy consisting of microwave heating and deep eutectic solvents (DESs) treatment is demonstrated to extract the chitin from the crayfish shells. Benefitted from the release of hydrogen ion from acidic hydrogen bond donor of DESs and the formation of hydrogen bonding between DES components and protein, the minerals and protein are successfully removed using the choline chloride/lactic acid (CL) DESs. With the optimized extraction conditions, the high yield and purity of chitin is simultaneously obtained as 19.11% and 97.44%, respectively. Furthermore, the DESs can be recycled and reused for 4 times with ease, which is conductive to reducing the extraction cost and realizing the sustainable development. Finally, the extracted chitin can be further dissolved in DESs to prepare a viscoelastic ink, which displays superior rheological properties and 3D printability. This study provides a green and facile method for chitin production and opens an exciting avenue for the high value-added utilization of chitin as 3D printing ink.

Extraction of chitin from white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) shells using binary ionic liquid mixtures

Binary ionic liquid mixtures (IL) were used for the first time to extract chitin from shrimp shells. Two ionic liquids, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole acetate ([EMIM][Ac]) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazole bromide salt ([BMIM][Br]), were mixed at ratios of 0:1, 1:1, 3:2, 4:1, and 1:0 and the properties of the IL and the characteristics of extracted chitin were investigated. With an increase in proportion of [EMIM][Ac], the viscosity, dielectric constant, and dielectric loss of IL gradually decreased (p < 0.05), whereas the conductivity, radius of gyration increased (p < 0.05). The best quality of chitin using IL (3:2) was achieved when the viscosity, conductivity, and radius of gyration were 0.16 ± 0.00 Pa‧s, 0.30 ± 0.01 S/m, and 0.10 ± 0.00 nm, respectively. The yield of chitin extraction using IL was 35.72 ± 0.31 %, and this was approximately 2.04 times higher than that using the acid-base method (17.50 ± 0.16 %). The Whiteness index (WI) of chitin extracted using IL (3:2) (94.93 ± 0.09) was better than commercial chitin (93.31 ± 0.11), and the secondary structure, surface morphology and thermal stability were similar to commercial chitin. Therefore, the binary ionic liquid mixture can be used as an effective green solvent to extract chitin from shrimp shells.

Commercialization of Ionic Liquids in Pursuit of Green Chemistry: Must we Each Become an Entrepreneur?

There will be common challenges to scaling-up any ionic liquids separations technologies which require very large volumes of ionic liquid. Some of these challenges are illustrated in this personal account which chronicles the extraction of chitin from shrimp shell from discovery to current commercialization efforts. The road being taken from discovery in an academic laboratory, through attempts to navigate the scaling-up to commercial scale using the vehicle of a faculty startup company is rewarding, but fraught with roadblocks, detours, and unexpected challenges. The differences in 'technically feasible' and 'commercially viable' are not always evident from the beginning of the journey, however, one wonders what achievements we miss as a Society because it was assumed to not be commercially viable.

Extraction of chitin from edible crab shells of Callinectes sapidus and comparison with market purchased chitin.

Chitin and its derived products have immense economic value due to their vital role in various biological activities as well as biomedical and industrial application. Insects, microorganism and crustaceans are the main supply of chitin but the crustaceans shell like shrimp, krill, lobsters and crabs are the main commercial sources. Chitin content of an individual varies depending on the structures possessing the polymer and the species. In this study edible crabs' shells (Callinectes sapidus) were demineralized and deproteinized resulting in 13.8% (dry weight) chitin recovery from chitin wastes. FTIR and XRD analyses of the experimental crude as well as purified chitins revealed that both were much comparable to the commercially purchased controls. The acid pretreatment ceded 54g of colloidal chitin that resulted in 1080% of the crude chitin. The colloidal chitin was exploited for isolation of eighty five chitinolytic bacterial isolates from different sources. Zone of clearance was displayed by the thirty five isolates (41.17%) succeeding their growth at pH 7 on colloidal chitin agar medium. Maximum chitinolytic activity i.e. 301.55 U/ml was exhibited by isolate JF70 when cultivated in extracted chitin containing both carbon and nitrogen. The study showed wastes of blue crabs can be utilized for extraction of chitin and isolation of chitinolytic bacteria that can be used to degrade chitin waste, resolve environmental pollution as well as industrial purpose.

Extraction and Characterization of Chitin and Chitosan from Tenebrio Molitor Beetles and Investigation of its Antibacterial Effect Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Chitin and chitosan are utilized in many industries such as pharmacy, biotechnology, and medicine. The mealworm beetle, Tenebrio Molitor, is simply breaded and does not require a vast production space. In this study, we extracted chitin and chitosan using two different methods from Tenebrio Molitor adult beetles. Then we studied their physical and chemical properties along with their antibacterial effect. Using two new methods we extracted 13, 3%, and 17.7% chitin from the dry mealworm beetle which was higher than in previous studies. The chitosan yield of the extracted chitin was 78.26% and 76.43%, respectively. The observed FTIR peaks for chitin and chitosan in this study were in accordance with the characteristic peaks. The degree of acetylation of chitin was 95.09% and 92.55% and the degree of deacetylation was 75.84%, and 72.6% from the first and second methods, respectively. The extracted chitosan also showed an antibacterial effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Our study demonstrated that chitin and chitosan extracted from adult mealworm beetles could be considered as a replacement for commercial chitosan and needs further studies.