Extraction Of Castor Oil Research Articles

Advances in the utilisation of castor (Ricinus communis Linneo) seed meal as protein supplement in poultry diets

In recent years, there has been increased interest in the use of readily available, cheap agroforestry products/by-products for livestock and poultry feeding. Castor is an economically important shrub grown mainly for its oils used for industrial, medicinal and food purposes. Castor seed meal (CSM), a by-product of castor oil extraction, has currently no food value but may have potential as feed ingredient in poultry diets. The increased demand for castor oil for industrial and medicinal uses will further increase the availability of this by-product. The meal has a good supply of protein (335–400 g/kg), metabolisable energy (7.65–11.34 MJ/kg), unsaturated fatty acids and moderate in essential amino acid content. The major factor hindering its efficient utilisation in poultry feed is the presence of highly toxic factors, mainly ricin. Currently, the meal is mainly, used as organic fertilizer. Several detoxification methods reduce the ricin content of the meal and make it safe for poultry. Moist heating, sodium chloride and lime treatments are more efficient in reducing the ricin content but dry heat has little effect. Detoxified meal is safe between 100 and 400 g/kg diet depending on the method of detoxification, age and species of poultry and amino acid supplementation but untreated meal is not. There is need for more research into processing conditions that would reduce toxicity and maintain a satisfactory nutrient profile. Recently, genetic engineering has been able to silence the ricin-coding gene in castor plant. Research into commercial production of this new cultivar will add value to castor meal as feed ingredient. Maximum utilisation of CSM in poultry feeding will reduce feed cost, provide additional source of income and maintain a balanced ecosystem by reducing the environmental risk of disposing this waste. This paper reviews the composition of CSM and developments in its utilisation for poultry feeding.

Microwave-assisted solvent extraction of castor oil from castor seeds

Abstract This study was aimed at evaluating the physicochemical properties and oxidation stability of castor oil using microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MAE). MAE was performed using 5% ethanol in hexane as solvent at different extraction times, power intensities and solvent-to-feed (S/F, ml of solvent to gram of feed) ratios. The process parameters were optimized by statistical approach using historical data design of response surface method (RSM). The oils were characterized for yield, physicochemical properties, dielectric properties and oxidation stability, and comparison was also made with oil extracted using Soxhlet method. Results show that the maximum oil yield of 37% was obtained at 20 min with microwave power intensity of 330 W and S/F ratio of 20. The main fatty acid composition of castor oil is ricinoleic acid. The density, refractive index, dielectric properties and oxidation stability of oils are not affected by the extraction methods and extraction parameters of MAE. However, the MAE-extracted oil is more viscous compared to that by Soxhlet method. With extra caution on oil oxidation, MAE could be a promising solvent extraction method with an 86% less in processing time and a higher yield.

Effect of the activation temperature over activated carbon production from castor cake and its evaluation as dye adsorbent

In this work, castor cake produced as a by-product in castor oil extraction was used for activated carbon production. Castor cake was chemically treated with a K2CO3 solution, and the effect of the pyrolysis temperature in the 500–900 °C range was studied. Materials were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy and nitrogen adsorption–desorption at −196 °C. Methylene blue adsorption was selected as a test probe to stress the removal capacity of the prepared materials. By the X-ray powder diffraction analysis, carbon obtaining in its graphite allotropic form together with other inorganic compounds was verified. Scanning electron microscopy images evidenced the generation of porosity in the thermally treated samples compared with the pristine compound. In addition, the specific surface area values augmented progressively with the thermal treatment increment achieving a value of 1015 m2 g−1 in the 900 °C calcined sample. Calcination at 800 °C and m/V = 0.003 ratio were the best parameter combination to achieve a 99.6% methylene blue uptake.

Characterization of castor plant-derived biochars and their effects as soil amendments on seedlings

Castor bean (Ricinus communis) is an important non-edible oilseed crop and source of castor oil which has multiple applications ranging from cosmetics to biofuels industry. However, the extraction of castor oil generates large amounts of de-oiled castor cake containing ricin, a highly toxic glycoprotein that requires treatment prior to its valorization. In this study, biochar was produced by slow pyrolysis at 550 °C from castor stalks and de-oiled castor cake, both by-products of castor oil production, in view of sustainable valorisation of a potential large scale cultivation of castor beans in Greece. The produced biochars were highly alkaline and had significant differences in terms of surface area, morphology, nutrients content and ratios of atomic C:N and H:C. The biochars were added to potting mix at different rates (0, 1 and 5% mass fraction of the dry mix) for the cultivation of tomato and castor seedlings, and their growth was monitored over a period of two months without fertilization. Based on the results, castor biochars improved castor seed germination, achieving 90% success rate earlier when compared to control. On the contrary, biochar did not affect significantly the germination of tomato seedlings. However, in both species, the biochar treatments promoted lateral root initiation but increased the developmental rate only in castor. In addition, biochars affected soil cation exchange capacity (CEC), PO4, total N and P, K, Na, Ca, and Al levels.

Kinetic and Thermodynamics studies for Castor Oil Extraction Using Subcritical Water Technology.

In this work both kinetic and thermodynamics of castor oil extraction from its seeds using subcritical water technique were studied. It was found that the extraction process followed two consecutive steps. In these steps, the oil was firstly extracted from inside the powder by diffusion mechanism. Then the extracted oil, due to extending the extraction time under high temperature and pressure, was subjected to a decomposition reaction following first order mechanism. The experimental data correlated well with the irreversible consecutive unimolecular-type first order mechanism. The values of both oil extraction rate constants and decomposition rate constants were calculated through non-linear fitting using DataFit software. The extraction rate constants were found to be 0.0019, 0.024, 0.098, 0.1 and 0.117 min(-1), while the decomposition rate constants were 0.057, 0.059, 0.014, 0.019 and 0.17 min(-1) at extraction temperatures of 240, 250, 260, 270 and 280°C, respectively. The thermodynamic properties of the oil extraction process were investigated using Arrhenius equation. The values of the activation energy, Ea, and the frequency factor, A, were 73 kJ mol(-1) and 946, 002 min(-1), respectively. The physicochemical properties of the extracted castor oil including the specific gravity, viscosity, acid value, pH value and calorific value were found to be 0.947, 7.487, 1.094 mg KOH/g, 6.1, and 41.5 MJ/Kg, respectively. Gas chromatography analysis showed that ricinoleic acid (83.6%) appears as the predominant fatty acid in the extracted oil followed by oleic acid (5.5%) and linoleic acid (2.3%).

Analysis of Castor by ELISAs that Distinguish Ricin and Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA)

AbstractTo facilitate the analysis of castor (Ricinus communis L.) seed fractions and germplasm for ricin content, we investigated the use of enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods to differentiate between ricin toxin and the related Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA). Both proteins are based on a heterodimeric AB structure, with a common A chain. RCA comprises two dimers of A and B chains. Both proteins are found in the meal remaining after castor oil extraction and impede the commercial production of castor seed in the USA. We identified pairs of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that could distinguish between the structurally related proteins that share a common A chain. Antibody specificity was determined by ELISA and checked by immunoblotting. We found that mAb–mAb pairs afforded quantification of each castor protein, and that a mAb paired with a commercial polyclonal antibody provided detection of both with comparable sensitivity.

Effect of pre-treatment on solvents extraction and physico-chemical properties of castor seed oil

Extraction of castor oil from castor seed was carried out by Soxhlet method using polar and non-polar commercial solvents at the optimum conditions obtained from the preliminary oil extraction study. The solvents used were hexane, pentane, petroleum ether, cyclohexane, ethylacetate, methanol, and isopropanol. The effect of different process parameters such as temperature, solute to solvent ratio, and extraction time were studied to optimize and compare the extraction efficiency of different solvents. The higher oil yields of 56.07% and 55.22% were obtained by using polar solvents, i.e., ethyl acetate and methanol, respectively. The physico-chemical properties of the castor oil extracted using different solvents were also estimated to determine its quality potential using ASTM methods. Similarly, the performance of seed pre-treatment on the oil yield and the suitability of methanol as a possible extracting and reactive solvent for biodiesel production was also investigated. The pre-treatment of castor seed has slightly increased the oil yield and decreased the values of acid value (3.92 to 0.925 mg KOH/g) and pour point (−15 to −21 °C) significantly. Apart from that, thermal and oxidative stability analysis was performed using thermo gravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry under nitrogen and air atmosphere, respectively. The fatty acid profile of castor oil was determined by using gas chromatography. The 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was employed for two castor oil samples (extracted after and before heat-treatment of seeds) to compare and identify the different protons in present the oil. The obtained physico-chemical properties indicate that oil meets the prescribed biodiesel feedstock quality standards and further justifying that methanol can be a capable solvent for simultaneous extraction and transesterification.

Review on Extraction and Characterization of Castor Seed Oil

Extraction of castor oil is important in determination of the quality of castor oil extracted. The quality of castor oil being extracted has to meet the ASTM standard that has been produced. The way of extraction can be either mechanical extraction or chemical extraction that is practically used in the industry which give the highest yield of oil extracted. Castor oil is mainly composed of ricinoleic acid in high concentration. It is a unique vegetable oil that contains high content of fatty hydroxyacid.

Castor Oil Extraction from Cold Pressed Cake Using Subcritical <I>n</I>-Butane Under Low Temperature and Refining Process of Oil

Castor Oil Extraction from Cold Pressed Cake Using Subcritical <I>n</I>-Butane Under Low Temperature and Refining Process of Oil

Mechanical properties of castor beans subject to different drying temperatures aiming to disrupt the bean coat

In castor oil extraction process, the bean coat is abrasive to the equipment and releases substances that modify the oil color, reducing its quality. A potential solution would be to run the extraction by compressing only the endosperm. Due to lack of information, the objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of forced air drying at 40, 60, 80 and 100 ºC and farmyard drying, in the mechanical properties of the beans, aiming to break the bean coat. Castor beans were subjected to compression tests, in two perpendicular directions, at a strain rate of 0.6 mm.s-1. Average values of force, deformation energy, strain, all at rupture, and stiffness were used to evaluate the effects of dehydration. It was observed that the heat treatments did not alter the mechanical properties of castor beans, the strain and stiffness values discriminate the differences between the directions and had the lowest coefficients of variation. It was concluded that forced air drying, more costly than farmyard drying, does not bring benefits to the decortication. However, regardless the heat treatment used, the mechanical stress lengthwise is the most suitable to promote decortication.

The analytical characterization of castor seed cake pyrolysis bio-oils by using comprehensive GC coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry

The castor oil is one of the world's most useful and economically important natural plant oils. The castor oil extraction from the pressing of castor seeds is responsible for the daily generation of half a ton of a solid residue, called castor seed cake, for every ton of seed used in this process. The aim of this work was to use slow pyrolysis to obtain, from castor seed cakes, pyrolysis oil and determine its chemical composition. The bio-oil composition was investigated using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS), and 408 compounds were tentatively identified. Among the compounds identified were: hydrocarbon (13.2%), nitrogen (9.5%), oxygen (8.4%) and sulphur (0.2%) compounds. The calorific value of the pyrolysis oils (37.5MJkg−1) was similar to petroleum fuels used commercially (43–46MJkg−1) and greater than typical wood-derived crude bio-oils (17MJkg−1). Thus, this oil may be potentially useful for production of chemicals and energy, after upgrading, proving to be a great choice destination of this waste.

Preparación y caracterización de carbón activado a partir de torta de higuerilla

Los residuos de biomasa han sido usados para la producción de carbones activados, en este proceso, el método para obtenerlos y la materia prima determinan propiedades como la porosidad y área superficial del carbón. Tras la extracción del aceite de higuerilla se genera un subproducto sólido (torta) de difícil salida, que fue usado en la producción de carbón activado, en busca de la valorización de este residuo sólido. Para tal fin se emplearon dos métodos tradicionales. En primer lugar, activación física usando como agentes activantes vapor de agua, CO2 y una mezcla de estos gases, adicionalmente se realizó activación química usando K2CO3 como agente activante. Algunos de los carbones obtenidos fueron caracterizados usando isotermas de adsorción/desorción de N2 donde se lograron áreas superficiales BET entre 255,98 (m2/g) y 1218,43 (m2/g), del análisis por SEM y EDS se encontró que los materiales obtenidos por ambos tipos de activación son principalmente amorfos y que las características morfológicas de los carbones obtenidos mediante activación física son muy diferentes de los obtenidos por activación química. Finalmente, a través de impregnación con sales de Ni y Mo se evidenció que por características como la alta dispersión obtenida, estos materiales carbonosos presentan un potencial para ser usados como soporte catalítico.

Physical-chemical Characterization of Lignocellulosic Materials of Interest to Bioethanol Production

The knowledge of the chemical composition of biomass feedstocks is very important in order to decide what lignocellulosic material to be used in the industrial process and the associated pretreatment to bioethanol production. In this context, the present work applied an analytical methodology of chemical characterization, developed for sugarcane bagasse, to other biomasses, namely, sugarcane straw, bamboo, bean stalk, residue from the extraction of castor oil, sape grass, wheat straw, African palm rachis, elephant grass and Agave tequilana. Chemical composition (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) of the raw materials was determined by the acid hydrolysis (H2SO4 72%) of theses extractives-free materials. Carbohydrates, organic acids and degradation products were determined by HPLC. Lignin and phenolics were analyzed by gravimetry and spectroscopy procedures, respectively. Results showed that, among the materials studied, the sugarcane bagasse had the higher amount of cellulose (43.8%) and the sugarcane straw had the higher amount of hemicellulose (32.4%) justifying the interest of apply these biomasses as raw materials for the production of cellulosic ethanol. Other biomasses presented cellulose composition varying between 31.8 and 41.7 %, hemicellulose between 21.2 and 28.6 %, and lignin from 20.6 to 33.6 %. Extractives showed more abundant in sape grass (18.7 %) and were removed before the composition analysis to avoid interferences in lignin quantification.

Carcass characteristics of sheep fed with castor bean hulls in replacement of tifton 85 hay

Castor bean hulls (CBH), co-products of castor oil extraction, are high in dry matter (DM) and fiber and are emerging as alternative roughage in sheep feed. This could reduce feed costs since other sources of roughage can be more expensive. The effects of replacing Tifton 85 hay with CBH at 0, 33, 66 and 100% in the diet of sheep on the carcass characteristics, weights and yields of retail cuts and carcass measurements were studied. Twenty-eight non-castrated sheep averaging 7 ± 1.4 months of age with an initial weight of 19.5 ± 4.3 kg were slaughtered after 70 days of confinement. There was a linear decline (P ≤ 0.05) in slaughter body weight, empty body weight, hot and cold carcass weight and longissimus muscle area (LMA) as the percentage of dietary CBH increased. A linear decrease (P≤0.05) of the weights of all retail cuts and a quadratic effect (minimum yield of 9.84% with the replacement of 56.9%) of the neck yield were also detected as the percentage of CBH increased. No treatment effects (P > 0.05) on the yield of the other cuts were observed, but there was a linear decline (P ≤ 0.05) in the perimeters of the thorax, leg and rump and the carcass compactness index. Replacing Tifton 85 hay with CBH in sheep diets is not recommended because it decreases the slaughter body weight, cold and hot carcass weight, retail cut weights and morphometric measurements.

Feasibility study for a castor oil extraction plant in South Africa

Feasibility study for a castor oil extraction plant in South Africa

Thermal Stability of Ricin in Orange and Apple Juices

Ricin is a potent protein toxin that could be exploited for bioterrorism. Although ricin may be detoxified using heat, inactivation conditions in foods are not well characterized. Two brands of pulp-free orange juice and 2 brands of single-strength apple juice (one clarified and the other unclarified) containing 100 microg/mL added ricin were heated at 60 to 90 degrees C for up to 2 h. With increasing heating times and temperatures the heat-treated juices exhibited decreasing detectability of ricin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and cytotoxicity to cultured cells. Z-values for ricin inactivation in orange juices were 14.4 +/- 0.8 degrees C and 17 +/- 4 degrees C using cytotoxicity assays, compared to 13.4 +/- 1.5 degrees C and 14 +/- 2 degrees C determined by ELISA. Although insignificant differences were apparent for z-values measured for the 2 orange juice brands, significant differences were found in the z-values for the 2 brands of apple juice. The z-values for ricin inactivation in the clarified and unclarified apple juices were 21 +/- 4 degrees C and 9.5 +/- 1.1 degrees C, determined by cytotoxicity assays, and 20 +/- 2 degrees C and 11.6 +/- 0.7 degrees C, respectively, using ELISA. Overall, there were no significant differences between results measured with ELISA and cytotoxicity assays. Ricin stability in orange juice and buffer was evaluated at 25 degrees C. Half-lives of 10 +/- 3 d and 4.9 +/- 0.4 d, respectively, indicated that active ricin in juice could reach consumers. These results indicate that ricin in apple and orange juices can remain toxic under some processing and product storage conditions. Ricin is a potent toxin that is abundant in castor beans and is present in the castor bean mash by-product after cold-press extraction of castor oil. U.S. Health and Human Services recognizes that ricin could be used for bioterrorism. This study reports the stability of ricin in apple and orange fruit juices at temperatures ranging from 60 to 90 degrees C (140 to 194 degrees F).

Extraction of castor oil for (medical use)

Extraction of castor oil for medical uses by cold press of castor beans at 38˚C with applied pressure 140 bars & pressing time of 70min., the maximum efficiency was found to be 80%.The pressed cake which contains 17% oil was subjected to solvent extraction with hexane under operation conditions: temperature, time of extraction and solvent to feed ratio.Bleaching of the castor oil with natural earth (bentonite) to improve the color.

Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Ricinus Communis (Castor) Seed Oil, Hydrogenated Castor Oil, Glyceryl Ricinoleate, Glyceryl Ricinoleate SE, Ricinoleic Acid, Potassium Ricinoleate, Sodium Ricinoleate, Zinc Ricinoleate, Cetyl Ricinoleate, Ethyl Ricinoleate, Glycol Ricinoleate, Isopropyl Ricinoleate, Methyl Ricinoleate, and Octyldodecyl Ricinoleate1

The oil derived from the seed of the Ricinus communis plant and its primary constituent, Ricinoleic Acid, along with certain of its salts and esters function primarily as skin-conditioning agents, emulsion stabilizers, and surfactants in cosmetics, although other functions are described. Ricinus Communis (Castor) Seed Oil is the naming convention for castor oil used in cosmetics. It is produced by cold pressing the seeds and subsequent clarification of the oil by heat. Castor oil does not contain ricin because ricin does not partition into the oil. Castor oil and Glyceryl Ricinoleate absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, with a maximum absorbance at 270 nm. Castor oil and Hydrogenated Castor Oil reportedly were used in 769 and 202 cosmetic products, respectively, in 2002; fewer uses were reported for the other ingredients in this group. The highest reported use concentration (81%) for castor oil is associated with lipstick. Castor oil is classified by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe and effective for use as a stimulant laxative. The Joint Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives established an acceptable daily castor oil intake (for man) of 0 to 0.7 mg/kg body weight. Castor oil is hydrolyzed in the small intestine by pancreatic enzymes, leading to the release of glycerol and Ricinoleic Acid, although 3,6-epoxyoctanedioic acid, 3,6-epoxydecanedioic acid, and 3,6-epoxydodecanedioic acid also appear to be metabolites. Castor oil and Ricinoleic Acid can enhance the transdermal penetration of other chemicals. Although chemically similar to prostaglandin E(1), Ricinoleic Acid did not have the same physiological properties. These ingredients are not acute toxicants, and a National Toxicology Program (NTP) subchronic oral toxicity study using castor oil at concentrations up to 10% in the diet of rats was not toxic. Other subchronic studies of castor oil produced similar findings. Undiluted castor oil produced minimal ocular toxicity in one study, but none in another. Undiluted castor oil was severely irritating to rabbit skin in one study, only slightly irritating in another, mildly irritating to guinea pig and rat skin, but not irritating to miniature swine skin. Ricinoleic Acid was nonirritating in mice and in one rabbit study, but produced well-defined erythema at abraded and intact skin sites in another rabbit study. Zinc Ricinoleate was not a sensitizer in guinea pigs. Neither castor oil nor Sodium Ricinoleate was genotoxic in bacterial or mammalian test systems. Ricinoleic Acid produced no neoplasms or hyperplasia in one mouse study and was not a tumor promoter in another mouse study, but did produce epidermal hyperplasia. Castor oil extract had a strong suppressive effect on S(180) body tumors and ARS ascites cancer in male Kunming mice. No dose-related reproductive toxicity was found in mice fed up to 10% castor oil for 13 weeks. Female rats injected intramuscularly with castor oil on the first day after estrus had suppressed ovarian folliculogenesis and anti-implantation and abortive effects. Castor oil used as a vehicle control in rats receiving subcutaneous injections had no effect on spermatogenesis. A methanol extract of Ricinus communis var. minor seeds (ether-soluble fraction) produced anti-implantation, anticonceptive, and estrogenic activity in rats and mice. Clinically, castor oil has been used to stimulate labor. Castor oil is not a significant skin irritant, sensitizer, or photosensitizer in human clinical tests, but patients with occupational dermatoses may have a positive reaction to castor oil or Ricinoleic Acid. The instillation of a castor oil solution into the eyes of nine patients resulted in mild and transient discomfort and minor epithelial changes. In another study involving 100 patients, the instillation of castor oil produced corneal epithelial cell death and continuity breaks in the epithelium. Because castor oil contains Ricinoleic Acid as the primary fatty acid group, the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel considered the safety test data on the oil broadly applicable to this entire group of cosmetic ingredients. The available data demonstrate few toxic effects. Although animal studies indicate no significant irritant or sensitization potential, positive reactions to Ricinoleic Acid in selected populations with identified dermatoses did suggest that sensitization reactions may be higher in that population. Overall, however, the clinical experience suggests that sensitization reactions are seen infrequently. In the absence of inhalation toxicity data on these ingredients, the Panel determined that these ingredients can be used safely in aerosolized cosmetic products because the particle sizes produced are not respirable. Overall, the CIR Expert Panel concluded that these cosmetic ingredients are safe in the practices of use and concentrations as described in this safety assessment.

A bioresource solvent for extraction of castor oil

Extraction of castor oil from castor seeds was carried out using a bioresource solvent and compared with the extraction capacity of a commercial solvent. The solvents used were feint, a liquid industrial waste from the distillery and commercial hexane. Results of the chemical and physical properties of the extracted oils indicate that feint could serve as an effective substitute solvent for commercial hexane in the extraction of castor oil intended for alkyd resin production. The extraction coefficients for enhanced oil removal from the seed meal and the enthalpy changes accompanying the extraction process were determined. The solvent power of the solvents was temperature dependent.