Extra Emissions Research Articles

Characterizing temporal and vertical distribution patterns of traffic-emitted pollutants near an elevated expressway in urban residential areas

Elevated expressways have been built in many cities worldwide to improve the accessibility and capability of urban road network. Meanwhile, intensive emissions from ground- and elevated-road traffic would significantly elevate personal exposure levels to air pollutants, such as fine particles (PM1), carbon monoxide (CO) and black carbon (BC). However, their transport and dispersion mechanisms in urban residential areas have not been clearly recognized. In this study, we characterized temporal and vertical distribution patterns of traffic-emitted pollutants near an elevated expressway in near-road buildings. Vertically-resolved measurements of traffic emissions were made at different floors of a roadside building alongside the Inner Ring Viaduct in downtown Shanghai, China from January to June 2019. Results show that higher pollutant concentrations were observed during the morning (Local Time, UTC+8, LT 08–09) in winter and during the late afternoon (LT 17–18) in summer, the result of seasonal variations in vehicular activities and meteorological factors. Additionally, the vertical profiles of traffic-emitted pollutants all exhibited bimodal distribution patterns, which was more obvious for PM1 than for CO and BC. The upper peak appeared slightly above noise barriers, attributable to the extra vehicular emissions on the elevated expressway. The lower peak occurred at ground level mainly due to on-road congested traffic flow, and the presence of the elevated road, which inhibited the dilution of ground-level vehicular exhausts. These findings reveal the general trends of the dispersion patterns of traffic emissions surrounding urban elevated expressways, and could provide implications in making control measures to mitigate air pollution exposure.

The Environmental Foodprint of Obesity

Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) are linked to global warming and adverse climate changes. Meeting the needs of the increasing number of people on the planet presents a challenge for reducing total GHG burden. A further challenge may be the size of the average person on the planet and the increasing number of people with excess body weight. We used data on GHG emissions from various sources and estimated that obesity is associated with ~20% greater GHG emissions compared with the normal-weight state. On a global scale, obesity contributes to an extra GHG emissions of ~49 megatons per yearof CO2 equivalent (CO2 eq) from oxidative metabolism due to greater metabolic demands, ~361 megatonsper year ofCO2 eq from food production processes due to increased food intake, and ~290 megatonsper year of CO2 eq from automobile and air transportation due to greater body weight. Therefore, the total impact of obesity may be extra emissions of ~700 megatons per year ofCO2 eq, which is about 1.6% of worldwide GHG emissions. Inasmuch as obesity is an important contributor to global GHG burden, strategies to reduce its prevalence should prioritize efforts to reduce GHG emissions. Accordingly, reducing obesity may have considerable benefits for both public health and the environment.

Consistent treatment of charm production in higher-orders at tree-level within kT -factorization approach

We discuss production of $c \bar c$-pairs within $k_T$-factorization approach (off-shell initial partons) with unintegrated parton distribution functions (uPDFs). We present a consistent prescription which merges the standard leading-order (LO) $k_T$-factorization calculations for this process with tree-level next-to-leading order (NLO) and next-to-next-to-leading order (NNLO) matrix elements. For the first time we include in this framework 2 $\to$ 3 and 2 $\to$ 4 processes with extra partonic emissions for single particle distributions as well as for correlation observables. The use of the KMR uPDF leads to a good description of the existing charm ($D$-meson) data already at the leading-order. On the other hand, a new Parton-Branching (PB) uPDF strongly underestimates the same experimental data. A direct inclusion of the higher-orders at tree-level leads to an overestimation of the data, especially for the KMR uPDF. This suggests a significant double-counting. We propose a simple method how to avoid the double-counting. Our procedure leads to a much better description of the experimental data when including the higher-order contributions. Then with the KMR uPDF we get similar results (both for single particle and correlation observables) as for the standard calculations of the 2 $\to$ 2 processes. For the PB uPDF inclusion of the higher-orders considerably improves description of the experimental data. We conclude that the LO calculation with the KMR uPDF effectively includes the higher-orders which is not the case for the PB uPDF.

Conducting Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) to Determine Carbon Payback: A Case Study of a Highly Energy-Efficient House in Rural Alaska

Buildings are responsible for a large portion of global greenhouse gas emissions. While energy efficiency features can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions during a building’s operational stage, extra materials and processes associated with these features typically involve higher greenhouse gas emissions during the construction phase. In order to study this relationship, a case study of a highly energy-efficient house in rural Alaska was performed. For the purposes of this case study, a theoretical counterpart home was designed that has the same interior space, but insulation values close to the code minimum requirements. Using computer simulations, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was performed for the case study home as well as its conventional counterpart. The extra greenhouse gas emissions associated with the construction of the case study home were compared to the annual savings in greenhouse gas emissions achieved thanks to the energy efficiency features, and carbon payback was calculated. The carbon payback was calculated to be just over three years, which is only a small fraction of the life of the building. The results of this study show that despite higher greenhouse gas emissions during the construction phase, highly energy-efficient homes can play an important role in addressing climate change.

Effect of V and Y doping on the structural, optical and electronic properties of CdS (hexagonal and cubic phases)

Nano Cd1−xYxS and Cd1−xVxS (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.2) systems were synthesized by a thermolysis method. X-ray phase analysis indicated the presence of two phases, cubic and hexagonal structures, for some samples. The effect of doping on the cell parameters, Cd-tetrahedron dimension, crystallite size and the mixed phases’ percentages in the sample were examined applying X-ray Rietveld method. The energy gap of Y- or V-doped CdS was determined by ultraviolet spectroscopy technique. It is found out that the energy gap of V-doped CdS is less than the corresponding Y-doped CdS samples. Density function calculation (DFT) was used to confirm the decreasing in energy gap upon doping, and also to study the changes in absorption and dielectric properties of doped and undoped CdS samples in both cubic and hexagonal phases. The photoluminescence measurements revealed the presence of extra sub emissions spectra (yellow and green) upon doping CdS with Y or V compared with undoped CdS sample.

Effect of H2O/CO2 mixture on heat transfer characteristics of pulverized coal MILD-oxy combustion

The integration of moderate or intense low-oxygen dilution (MILD) combustion technology with oxy-fuel combustion, that is, MILD-oxy combustion, has a favorable compatibility to obtain high thermal efficiency and extra low CO2 emissions for pulverized coal combustion. MILD-oxy combustion is characterized by high levels of H2O/CO2 dilution, whose heat transfer characteristics are affected by the physical and chemical properties (i.e., gasification reactivity, heat capacity, and heat radiation) of H2O/CO2 mixture. In this work, dependences of the heat transfer characteristics of MILD oxy-coal combustion on the physical and chemical properties are qualitatively analyzed. Results show that high CO2 levels is favorable for the establishment of pulverized coal MILD combustion for a given 30 vol% O2. An increase in H2O concentration reduces transferred heat while the enhancing the share of heat radiation. In addition, the effect of gasification reactivity on flame temperature is remarkable at a narrow region and gradually weakens with the increase in H2O concentration. The heat capacity makes a slight reduction on overall furnace temperature. As the H2O is substitute for CO2, the influence of heat capacity progressively declines. Moreover, the effect of heat capacity on strengthening convective heat transfer or weakening radiative heat transfer gradually decreases. As the H2O concentration increases, the reduction of flame temperature affected by heat radiation ranges from 13 K to 34 K. Notably, 20% and 30% H2O, and 40% and 50% steam cases have similar radiative emissivity, but the intensity of radiation of the steam cases is increasingly intense, thereby resulting in a significant reduction on flame temperature.

Real driving particle number (PN) emissions from China-6 compliant PFI and GDI hybrid electrical vehicles

In this paper, the real driving particle number (PN) emissions from two China-6 compliant hybrid electrical vehicles (HEVs) were measured using a certification-level portable emission measurement system (PEMS) and strict adherence to the regulatory procedures for real driving emission (RDE) testing. The results show that the trip-averaged PN emission factors for the port fuel injection (PFI) HEV and the gasoline direct injection (GDI) HEV were 1.15E+12 and 1.71E+12#/km respectively, much higher than the engine-only counterparts and failing the existing RDE limits. Enriched air-fuel mixtures and probably lowered catalyst conversion efficiencies as a result of more frequent engine stop-and-goes of the HEVs are found to be the underlying reasons for the extra PN emissions. The test results also suggest the necessity to amend the power management strategy currently widely used in HEVs to deal with the PN issue.

Integrated intermediate catalytic pyrolysis of wheat husk

Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant renewable resource in existence and is the only source of renewable fixed carbon. Biofuels produced from this source are promising because they do not contribute to extra CO2 emissions and they reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. Presently, wheat husk has a distinctive potential as a renewable source of biomass, due to its global availability, which is advantageous for producing liquid and gaseous fuels by thermochemical processes. The Thermo-Catalytic Reforming (TCR) process is excellent for generating energy vectors (solid char, liquid bio-oil and permanent gases) from agricultural wastes, such as wheat husk. These valorised energy vectors can be applied as transportation fuels and used in combined heat and power (CHP) plants. The aim of this work is to study the conversion of wheat husk into fuels, using TCR technology in a 2kg/h continuous pilot scale reactor. Findings show that from 100wt% of the feedstock, 29.6wt% was converted into synthesis gas, 21.7wt% to char, 5.8wt% into organic bio-oil, 32.8wt% into aqueous phase liquids and the remaining was attributed to losses (10.1wt%). The organic bio-oil contains a higher heating value (HHV) of 26MJ/kg, which represents a notable increase compared to the original feedstock (17.8MJ/kg). Phenol was found to be the most abundant compound within the oil, with a relative abundance of 30.88% measured by GC–MS. Oleic acid (7.41%) was the most abundant long chain hydrocarbon detected. The total acid number of the oil (TAN) was (29.9mg KOH/g) and viscosity measured (145.2cSt). In order to use wheat husk oil as a direct engine fuel, it is necessary to carry out upgrading via hydro-processing; or blend with fossil crude oil for further refining. Overall, TCR is a promising future route for the valorisation of wheat husk to produce renewable energy vectors.

Effects of reformed exhaust gas recirculation on the HC and CO emissions of a spark-ignition engine fueled with LNG

Reformed exhaust gas recirculation (REGR), which can generate onboard hydrogen-rich gas (i.e., the reformate including H2, CO, unreformed hydrocarbon, etc.) via catalytic reforming of fuel and engine exhaust gas, is an attractive way to improve the performance and emissions characteristics of the engine fueled with liquefied natural gas (i.e., NG engine). However, the leakage during the valve overlap period and incomplete burning of the added reformate may lead to extra HC and CO emissions from the engine with REGR. In the present study, a multi-dimensional computation fluid dynamics model coupled with a detailed chemical kinetic mechanism was developed to investigate the effects of the ratio of reformate addition (Rref) and exhaust valve closed (EVC) timing on the total emissions characteristics as well as the sources of HC and CO emissions from the engine. The emissions from the combustion and the leaking were included to calculate the total emissions. Moreover, the unburned CO from the added reformate was distinguished from the total CO emissions by adding marked-species. Results show that the unburned CH4 in the cylinder is the main component of the total CH4 emissions. Due to the increase of the concentrations of OH, O and H radicals during the combustion process, the oxidization of CH4 is promoted with the increase of Rref at high load, and therefore the total CH4 emissions decrease. However, the total CO emissions increase with the increase of Rref, and it is demonstrated that the unburned CO from the added reformate increases and turns to be the main sources of the total CO emissions. At Rref of 10%, the total CH4 and CO emissions firstly remain nearly constant and then increase dramatically with the delay of EVC timing. Therefore, low concentration of CO in the reformate and short valve duration are recommended to achieve low HC and CO emissions for the NG engine with REGR.

Potential impacts of emissions associated with unconventional hydrocarbon extraction on UK air quality and human health

Here, we report the first results of model sensitivity simulations to assess the potential impacts of emissions related to future activities linked to unconventional hydrocarbon extraction (fracking) in the UK on air pollution and human health. These simulations were performed with the Met Office Air Quality in the Unified Model, a new air quality-forecasting model, and included a wide range of extra emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) to reflect emissions from the full life cycle of fracking-related activities and simulate the impacts of these compounds on levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3). These model simulations highlight that increases in NOx and VOC emissions associated with unconventional hydrocarbon extraction could lead to large local increases in the monthly means of daily 1-h maximum NO2 of up to + 30 ppb and decreases in the maximum daily 8-h mean O3 up to − 6 ppb in the summertime. Broadly speaking, our simulations indicate increases in both of these compounds across the UK air shed throughout the year. Changes in the 1-h maximum of NO2 and 8-h mean of O3 are particularly important for their human health impacts. These respective changes in NO2 and O3 would contribute to approximately 110 (range 50–530) extra premature-deaths a year across the UK based on the use of recently reported concentration response functions for changes in annual average NO2 and O3 exposure. As such, we conclude that the release of emissions of VOCs and NOx be highly controlled to prevent deleterious health impacts.

Increased importance of methane reduction for a 1.5 degree target

To understand the importance of methane on the levels of carbon emission reductions required to achieve temperature goals, a processed-based approach is necessary rather than reliance on the transient climate response to emissions. We show that plausible levels of methane (CH4) mitigation can make a substantial difference to the feasibility of achieving the Paris climate targets through increasing the allowable carbon emissions. This benefit is enhanced by the indirect effects of CH4 on ozone (O3). Here the differing effects of CH4 and CO2 on land carbon storage, including the effects of surface O3, lead to an additional increase in the allowable carbon emissions with CH4 mitigation. We find a simple robust relationship between the change in the 2100 CH4 concentration and the extra allowable cumulative carbon emissions between now and 2100 (0.27 ± 0.05 GtC per ppb CH4). This relationship is independent of modelled climate sensitivity and precise temperature target, although later mitigation of CH4 reduces its value and thus methane reduction effectiveness. Up to 12% of this increase in allowable emissions is due to the effect of surface ozone. We conclude early mitigation of CH4 emissions would significantly increase the feasibility of stabilising global warming below 1.5 °C, alongside having co-benefits for human and ecosystem health.

Numerical and Experimental Investigation on the Performance of a Thermoelectric Cooling Automotive Seat

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) is the most significant auxiliary load in vehicles and largely increases extra emissions. Therefore, thermoelectric cooling automotive seat, a relatively new technology, is used in an attempt to reduce HVAC consumption and improve thermal comfort. In this study, three design schemes of the thermoelectric cooler (TEC) are proposed. Then the numerical simulation is used to analyze their heat transfer performance, and evaluate the improvement of the seat cooling in terms of the occupant back thermal comfort. Moreover, an experiment is conducted to validate the accuracy of the simulation results. The experimental results show that: (1) an average reduction in air temperature of 4°C in 60 s is obtained; (2) the temperature of the occupant’s back drops from 33.5°C to 25.7°C in cooperation with the HVAC system; (3) back thermal comfort is greatly improved. As expected, the thermoelectric cooling automotive seat is able to provide an improvement in the occupant's thermal comfort at a reduced energy consumption rate, which makes it promising for vehicular application.

Right kind of growth

Heffernan talks about president Donald Trump's global tree-planting project. The brainchild of Dan Price, Jeff Willis, and Adrien Taylor--a scientist, a PhD candidate and a sustainable hat maker--Trump Forest aims to soak up the 650 million tonnes of extra carbon emissions that would be released over the next eight years as a result of axing the Clean Power Plan. That's a tall order--it would require more than 10 billion trees. But they have made a start: the project launched in New Zealand with the donation of 1000 native trees, and it now has supporters worldwide.

Drivers' smart advisory system improves driving performance at STOP sign intersections

Abstract STOP signs are often physically blocked by obstacles at the corner, forming a safety threat. To enhance the safety at an un-signalized intersection like a STOP sign intersection, a radio frequency identification (RFID) based drivers smart advisory system (DSAS) was developed, which provides drivers with an earlier warning message when they are approaching an un-signalized intersection. In this research, a pilot field test was conducted with the DSAS alarm on an approach towards a STOP sign intersection in a residential area in Houston, Texas. The designed test route covers all turning movements, including left turn, through movement, and right turn. GPS units recorded test drivers' driving behaviors. A self-developed MATLAB program and statistically significant difference t -test were applied to analyze the impacts of the DSAS messages on drivers' driving performance, in terms of approaching speed profile, acceleration/deceleration rates, braking distance, and possible extra vehicle emissions induced by the introduction of the DSAS message. Drivers' preference on the DSAS was investigated by a designed survey questionnaire among test drivers. Results showed that the DSAS alarm was able to induce drivers to drive significantly slower to approach a STOP sign intersection, perform smaller fluctuation in acceleration/deceleration rates, and be more aware of a coming STOP sign indicated by decelerating earlier. All test drivers preferred to follow the DSAS alarm on roads for a safety concern. Further, the DSAS alarm caused the reduction in emission rates through movement. For a general observation, more road tests with more participants and different test routes were recommended.

Alleviating global warming potential by soil carbon sequestration: A multi-level straw incorporation experiment from a maize cropping system in Northeast China

Straw incorporation exerts important roles on greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon (C) sequestration. However, few studies have comprehensively assessed the effects of straw incorporation on net global warming potential (NGWP) considering both emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) and accumulation of SOC in Northeast China, the most important agricultural regions across the nation. An ongoing straw incorporation experiment was initiated in a maize cropping system of Northeast China from 2010, including three treatments: no straw incorporation (CK), incorporation of maize straw at a low level of 4000kgha−1 (S4), and at a high level of 8000kgha−1 (S8). At 2015, the crop yield was significantly elevated (11% and 21% for S4 and S8, respectively) by the straw additions resulting from improved soil fertility. During the growing season of 2015, we found that the straw additions did not affect seasonal patterns of the N2O and CH4, but changed their seasonal magnitudes. Averaged over this period, CH4 flux was very low based on its GWP, and straw incorporation tended to reduce the CH4 emissions (6.6, 3.6 and 4.3kg CO2 eqha−1 for CK, S4 and S8, respectively); while straw incorporation significantly enhanced N2O emissions with the value of 429, 590 and 746kg CO2 eqha−1 for CK, S4 and S8, respectively. On the other hand, a significantly linear relationship (SOC sequestration rate=0.29×annualC input–0.57, R2=0.99, P<0.05) was detected between annual straw C input and SOC sequestration rate over the 5-year cycles, indicating the soil we studied was still not C-saturated at least during the experimental interval. More notably, the C conversion rate (29%, the slope of the equation) was generally larger than the values reported in other region of China. These results implied and confirmed that the soil of Northeast China possessed greater potentials to sequestrate external C. Taken together, the SOC accumulation accounted for major portion of the NGWP and counteracted the extra emissions of GHGs (492, −1183 and −3040kg CO2 eq ha−1 for NGWP of CK, S4 and S8, respectively). Therefore, the agricultural practise of straw incoporation was strongly recommended to be adopted in Northeat China to improve the soil productivity and simultaneously mitigate the negative influence of GHG emissions.

Low-ILUC-risk ethanol from Hungarian maize

Indirect land use change (ILUC) is a serious threat to the sustainability of bioenergy because of the extra GHG emissions (and other environmental impacts) it causes when feedstock production diverts other agricultural production and causes expansion onto high carbon stock lands. However, multiple measures exist to reduce the risk of ILUC. But these measures and their potential to mitigate ILUC are not yet well understood. Therefore, we assessed the ILUC-mitigation potential under three scenarios for possible developments in agricultural production and supply chains for a case study on maize production in Hungary for ethanol. Our results show that ILUC-risk mitigation is possible in all three scenarios: agricultural land demand is reduced by 3500–16000 km2 in 2020 compared to the current situation (6–29% of the agricultural area). This surplus land, is not needed anymore for food and feed production and can be used for biomass production for energy at a low risk of causing ILUC. For example, when maize is cultivated and converted to ethanol, this surplus land can provide 22-138 PJ of ethanol. This is equivalent to 10–60% of the projected 2020 transport energy use in Hungary. Yield improvements of maize, other crops and livestock contributed most (55–90%) to this low-ILUC-risk potential. To sustainably increase productivity and efficiency in the entire agricultural sector, an integrated approach to food and fuel (as well as other non-food) production is needed. Thereby, ILUC risk can be mitigated and is not an irreversible fact as often presented in previous studies.

A study on the design of a hybrid policy for carbon abatement

A necessary way to mitigate global warming is carbon reduction, which the international community is now actively promoting. China has committed a target goal for carbon reduction to the international society, and has devoted a great effort toward researching the impact of related policies. Carbon taxation and carbon trading are the two main mechanisms to advocate carbon abatement, which many countries have been using. Each of these two mechanisms possesses advantages and disadvantages, and an appropriate combination of them can make best use of their advantages while bypassing their disadvantages, creating a superior mechanism. In our opinion, the main differences between these two mechanisms are that carbon taxation has a lower institution cost (consisting of the related infrastructural investment and the regulation cost, etc), and is easier to operate, but lacks the flexibility in response to variations of market conditions. However, this flexibility is just the origin of risk, which increases the difficulty for firms in their decision of carbon abatement and is an indirect way to incentivize carbon abatement, compared to carbon trading, which has a more direct effect in carbon reduction. Based on the above observation, we present a hybrid mechanism of carbon abatement, which is an organized combination of carbon taxation and carbon trading. It consists of two parts: first, the carbon taxation, which has a progressive tax rate, second, the carbon trading. Small firms will only pay the carbon tax, while large firms, will first need to get the initial carbon emission quotas by some way, and then trade it in the carbon market if necessary. For firms with extra emissions, they will receive a punishment according to a high carbon tax rate. This hybrid policy considers the equity between different firms in carbon emission rights as well as the efficiency of the mechanism while decreasing the risk level for firms in the carbon emission decision, making it superior to the two previous policies. We also analyze the feasibility of this hybrid policy in China, address some important issues in the implementation of this hybrid policy in China and present the relevant suggestions. The discussion in this paper can serve as a reference to the government in the decision of carbon policies.

Time-Selective TALIF Spectroscopy of Atomic Oxygen Applied to an Atmospheric Pressure Argon Plasma Jet

Two-photon laser excitation diagnostics is applied to characterize the atomic oxygen production in an atmospheric pressure Ar+O2% plasma jet. The plasma jet device is driven by a 13.56-MHz radio-frequency power supply. It is found that in addition to the fast decaying two-photon absorption laser-induced fluorescence (TALIF), unexpected emissions from excited atomic argon and oxygen species with a long decay time are existent in TALIF processes. This phenomenon is believed to be common in TALIF diagnostics of atomic oxygen, especially in high-pressure plasmas because of intense collisional energy transfer processes. In order to avoid the influence of extra emissions on TALIF performance, time-selective detection is utilized to capture the pure atomic oxygen fluorescence through nanosecond imaging for characterizing the spatial distribution of O atoms in the plasma effluent. An approximate method for the absolute density calibration based on the atomic oxygen fluorescence in the open air, due to the laser-induced photodissociation of O2 molecules, is applied to the TALIF signal from a plasma jet. The 2-D spatial distributions of the ground state density of atomic oxygen are built in the plasma effluent under different O2 contents. With the increase in O2 admixtures, the generation of atomic oxygen is constricted to the plasma core area close to the gas outlet, and a maximum O density is obtained with 0.3% O2 in the core area.

Public Health Impact and Economic Costs of Volkswagen's Lack of Compliance with the United States' Emission Standards.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently issued a notice of violation against Volkswagen (VW) for installing a defective device in certain models of diesel cars to circumvent emission tests for nitrogen oxides (NOx). We quantified the health and economic impacts of extra NOx emissions attributable to non-compliant vehicles in the U.S. using the EPA’s Co-Benefits Risk Assessment model. We estimated that the total extra NOx emitted over one year of operation would result in 5 to 50 premature deaths, 687 to 17,526 work days with restricted activity, and economic costs of $43,479,189 to $423,268,502, based on various assumptions regarding emission scenarios and risks. This study highlights the potential impacts of VW vehicles’ lack of compliance on the health and well-being of the U.S. population.

Experimental Investigation on the Emissions of a Port Fuel Injection Spark Ignition Engine Fueled with Methanol–Gasoline Blends

The prospect of using methanol as an alternative fuel for vehicles in China is enticing because of its good combustion properties, low production cost, and renewable capacity, but the in-cylinder combustion of methanol also brings extra emissions concerns, such as alcohols and aldehydes. For the impact of methanol–gasoline blends on the pollutant emissions of spark ignition (SI) engines to be investigated, a GEELY MR479Q port fuel injection SI engine was selected for tests of burning different methanol–gasoline blends at wide-open throttle operating conditions, and an AVL Fourier-transform infrared multicomponent gas analyzer was used to measure all of the emissions. Test results show that the methanol-containing fuel blends had positive effects on the engine-out regulated emissions. Nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and nonmethane hydrocarbon emissions were all dramatically reduced when the test engine was fueled with methanol–gasoline blends. Other hydrocarbon emissions such as ethylene, propylene, and s...