Control Of External Parasites Research Articles

Village Chicken Production and Management Practices in Barishal, Bangladesh

Village chickens are an important source of income and protein for village people in Bangladesh, like in many other developing countries. Since the productivity of the chickens is low, their production might be improved through better management practices. In this regard, village chicken production and management practices were investigated to know the present status and its limitations. We selected 150 farmers from 3 Upazilas (Babuganj, Bakerganj, and Barishal Sadar) in the Barishal district and collected information in a structured questionnaire and through observations. The results show that the village chicken production system was extensive with a low amount of supplemental feed. 87.34% of farmers provided supplement feed to their chickens once or twice a day, while the rest of the farmers did not provide any supplement feed. All of the farmers had a poultry shelter to keep their chickens at night, but we found the shelters to be almost dirty. They were reluctant to clean the shelter, as only 14.67% of farmers cleaned the shelters once a month, while the others did not. Chickens of multiple age groups were kept in the same shelter without maintaining biosecurity. As a preventive measure, 58.67% of farmers vaccinated their chickens, primarily for Newcastle disease. They did not maintain a vaccination schedule. Only 15.33% and 4% of farmers practiced deworming and external parasite control, respectively. For the mating of chickens, the farmers did not select males and females. Though the village chickens seem to be reared and consumed by chicken owners, only 32.87% of chicken products were consumed by chicken owners, and the rest were sold at village markets. Under these circumstances, it can be stated that the low productivity of village chickens could be due to lack of adequate nutrition, unhealthy housing, disease outbreaks, unplanned mating, and improper management practices. The practices of dietary supplements, providing healthy housing, ensuring a vaccination schedule, mating with good partners, and good management practices could improve the productivity of village chickens in Bangladesh.

Evaluating the effect of certain management practices on the production performance of goat farmers in selected districts of KwaZulu-Natal: agricultural extension can make a difference

Goat farming holds great importance in the KwaZulu Natal province, it offers means to generate income specially to sustain rural households. Employment and food security are accounted for. Proper management of goats play a prime role in improving the productivity of herds. To discover what influence various management practices have on the production of goats, data was collected from seventy farmers in the uMgungundlovu district in KwaZulu-Natal province. The following four production variables were investigated: conception rate, lambing percentage, mortality rate and weaning percentage was investigated. Management practices investigated were: Internal parasite control; external parasite control; provision of supplementary feed during winter and summer; provision of supplementary lick; fertility testing of bucks before mating; provision of flush feed before breeding season starts; the presence of specific breeding seasons and pregnancy diagnosis. There was a statistical significance (P<0.05) in the conception rate where flush feeding was provided and a specific breeding season was present. A statistically significant higher lambing percentage with the control of internal parasites, provision of supplementary feed, flush feeding and the presence of a specific breeding season was obtained. There was a statistically higher weaning percentage with the provision of supplementary feed (P<0.05), flush feeding, the presence of a specific breeding season and pregnancy diagnosis

Novel Combination of Fipronil (1%) and Eprinomectin (0.5%) for Internal and External Parasite Control and its Impact on Average Daily Weight Gain on Beef Cattle, Fed in Jalisco, Mexico

Novel Combination of Fipronil (1%) and Eprinomectin (0.5%) for Internal and External Parasite Control and its Impact on Average Daily Weight Gain on Beef Cattle, Fed in Jalisco, Mexico

Response to doxycycline and oxytetracycline treatments in cats infected with Mycoplasma spp. and analysis of haemato-clinical findings and risk factors.

This study was planned to determine the efficacy of doxycycline and oxytetracycline in the treatment of feline Mycoplasma spp. infections and to analyze risk factors as well as clinical and haematological findings. Cats accepted to the clinic with complaints such as weakness, loss of appetite and fever were routinely examined. Clinical history of animal was demanded from the owner. An interview and a short questionnaire were conducted to owner to evaluate the risk factors associated with possible Mycoplasma status of animal. During the interview, the age, sex, breed, housing, flea infestation, worm control, external parasite control, other accompanying infections and vaccination status of cats were asked and the data recorded. Peripheral blood smears were stained with the DIFF-QUICK. Fifty positive cats were included in the study, 16 of which were treated with doxycycline (orally, 5 mg/kg twice a day) while other 34 with oxytetracycline (intramuscular injection, 10 mg/kg once a day). It was determined that all (100%) cats with Mycoplasma spp. infection had a flea infestation. Majority of cats (94%) did not receive the regular antiparasitic application and only 6 (12%) of them had complete vaccinations. Mycoplasma spp. infection was associated with younger age and outdoor access. Among the feline breed, striped cat (74%) was more prone to infection. The most common clinical signs encountered in cats were weakness (94%) and anorexia (84%). Haematological parameters revealed thrombocytopenia (86%), and anaemia (40%) in infected cats. At the end of the treatment, recovery rates for doxycycline and oxytetracycline groups were 87.5% and 67.6%, respectively. General status of these cats indicated significant improvement on the 4th day of treatment, and clinical symptoms are restored on the th day. Mycoplasmosis is an important infection for cats having anaemia, thrombocytopenia and leukocytosis. Flea infestations are risk factor for contamination of the disease. Based on our results, we recommend doxycycline treatment (5 mg/kg) for up to 21 days for elimination of Mycoplasma spp. in the blood of infected cats.

Sunning in extreme heat by the critically endangered hooded vulture: a strategy to fight ectoparasites?

At least 50 families of birds expose themselves to solar radiation, a behaviour known as sunning (Clayton et al. 2010). Yet, the functional significance of this common behaviour is poorly understood. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain why birds sun themselves, including acquisition/dissipation of heat for thermoregulation, drying of wet plumage, feather maintenance, or parasite removal (Kennedy 1968, 1969; Simmons1986; Blem and Blem 1993). These functions are not mutually exclusive and their relative importance likely depends on ecological context and evolutionary history. Nevertheless, accumulating evidence suggests that sunning plays an important role in the control of external parasites (Bush and Clayton 2018).

Health care practices adopted by goat keepers in north-west semi-arid region of Rajasthan

A survey was conducted to study the health care practices adopted by goat keepers in north-west semi arid region of Rajasthan. The health care practices followed in experimental area by the respondents viz. use of veterinary facilities, isolation of sick animal, deworming, vaccination, sanitization of shed and control of external parasite, was not significantly affected by flock size. The 58.33 % respondents were not familiar with use of veterinary facilities and 53.33 % did not isolate their animals during sickness. Awareness towards deworming and vaccination against contagious diseases by the respondents were 68.34% and 10 % respectively in studied area but most of goat keepers (81.66%) were adopted sanitization practices in goat shed. The control of external parasites was practiced by 58.33 % of the respondents surveyed either through dipping (10%) or through dusting (43.33%).

Lamb rearing practices of sheep rearers in arid and semiarid region of Rajasthan, India

The data were collected from 120 sheep rearers selected from 8 villages of two Tehsil of Bikaner District. The information was collected from respondents on lamb rearing of sheep rearers by an interview schedule. Flock size was affected significantly by immediate cleaning of lamb after birth and not affected by rest of lamb rearing practices. Maximum sheep keepers at 70.83 per cent were not aware about cleaning of lamb after birth and only 6.67 per cent were well aware about disinfection of navel cord. Colostrum feeding to lamb and suckling of lamb for more than 3 month was practiced by 99.17 and 58.33 per cent sheep rearers, respectively. About 70.83 per cent respondents were not aware about control of external parasites. Isolation of Lamb was not followed by 99.17 per cent respondents.

Awareness of zoonotic diseases and parasite control practices: a survey of dog and cat owners in Qatar

BackgroundQatar is one of the wealthiest and fastest growing economies in the world, experiencing a rapid increase in human and pet populations. Given the paucity of data on prophylactic measures against endo- and ectoparasites of pets in Qatar, as well as on the owners’ awareness of zoonotic diseases, a questionnaire was conducted.MethodsFrom July to November 2017, 150 multiple-choice questionnaires were administered to dog and/or cat owners who attended two veterinary clinics in Doha.ResultsOnly 54% (81/150) owners were aware of transmittable diseases between animals and humans. “Zoonosis/zoonotic disease(s)” was unknown for 88% (132/150) of the respondents and almost a quarter had no idea of transmission pathways associated with parasitic diseases. Thirteen owners (8.7%) reported to have suffered from zoonotic diseases (10 had dermatophytosis, 2 cat-scratch disease and 1 an unknown tick-borne disease) and 24.7% had dewormed themselves. Approximately 83% had their pets yearly vaccinated and 51% identified endo- and ectoparasites on their pets. Only 10% had their animal faeces tested for intestinal parasites as requested by a veterinarian. As for internal parasite control, only 19.3% dewormed their pets with the recommended treatment regimen (minimum quarterly); 52.7% (79/150) dewormed every 4 months to 1 year; 10% (15/150) without periodicity and 8% (12/150) had never done it. For external parasite control, only 16% (24/150) treated their pets with ectoparasiticides on a monthly basis; 44.7% (67/150) every 2 months to 1 year; 6.7% (10/150) without periodicity and 24.7% (37/150) had never done it. Approximately two thirds (63.3%) of pets were allowed to sleep in the owner’s bed and 60% to lick their owner’s face. Almost all pets were fed with dry/canned food, but 4.7% were fed with raw meat. Approximately 79.5% of dog owners collect their pet’s faeces from public areas.ConclusionsThese results highlight the need to raise pet owners’ awareness towards prophylactic measures to minimize the potential impact of zoonotic diseases on the health of both animals and humans in Qatar.

Participatory evaluation of delivery of animal health care services by community animal health workers in Karamoja region of Uganda.

AimAn evaluation exercise was carried out to assess the performance of Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) in the delivery of animal health care services in Karamoja region, identify capacity gaps and recommend remedial measures.Materials & methodsParticipatory methods were used to design data collection tools. Questionnaires were administered to 204 CAHWs, 215 farmers and 7 District Veterinary Officers (DVOs) to collect quantitative data. Seven DVOs and 1 Non Government Organization (NGO) representative were interviewed as key informants and one focus group discussion was conducted with a farmer group in Nakapiripirit to collect qualitative data. Questionnaire data was analyzed using SPSS version 19. Key messages from interviews and the focus group discussion were recorded in a notebook and reported verbatim.Results70% of the farmers revealed that CAHWs are the most readily available animal health care service providers in their respective villages. CAHWs were instrumental in treatment of sick animals, disease surveillance, control of external parasites, animal production, vaccination, reporting, animal identification, and performing minor surgeries. Regarding their overall performance 88.8%(191/215) of the farmers said they were impressed. The main challenges faced by the CAHWs were inadequate facilitation, lack of tools and equipments, unwillingness of government to integrate them into the formal extension system, poor information flow, limited technical capacity to diagnose diseases, unwillingness of farmers to pay for services and sustainability issues.Conclusions and recommendationsCAHWs remain the main source of animal health care services in Karamoja region and their services are largely satisfactory. The technical deficits identified require continuous capacity building programs, close supervision and technical backstopping. For sustainability of animal health care services in the region continuous training and strategic deployment of paraprofessionals that are formally recognised by the traditional civil service to gradually replace CAHWs is recommended.

Prevalence of and risk factors for feline hyperthyroidism in South Africa.

Objectives Hyperthyroidism is a disorder of older cats that may have a geographical variation in prevalence. Prevalence studies have not yet been performed in South Africa, a geographical area where hyperthyroidism in cats has recently been observed and where, reportedly, the incidence appears to be increasing. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of feline hyperthyroidism in South Africa and to identify any potential risk factors. Further information on the worldwide prevalence and possible causative factors would increase our understanding of the aetiology of this disease and help identify any preventive measures. Methods Serum total thyroxine (tT4) and canine thyroid-stimulating hormone (cTSH) were measured in 302 cats aged 9 years and older that were presented at various veterinary clinics throughout South Africa. In cats with equivocal tT4 and undetectable cTSH values, serum free thyroxine (fT4) was also measured. At the time of blood sampling a questionnaire was completed regarding vaccination history, internal and external parasite control, diet and environment. Results Prevalence of hyperthyroidism (tT4 >50 nmol/l or tT4 between 30 and 50 nmol/l with TSH <0.03 ng/ml and fT4 >50 pmol/l) was 7% (95% confidence interval 4.4-10.4), with no significant difference between healthy (5%) and sick (8%) cats. Cats ⩾12 years of age (odds ratio [OR] 4.3, P = 0.02) and cats eating canned food (OR 2.1, P = 0.1) were more likely to be diagnosed with hyperthyroidism. No significant relationship between vaccinations, parasite control or indoor environment and hyperthyroidism was observed. Hyperthyroid cats were more likely to present with weight loss (OR 3.2, P = 0.01) and with a heart rate ⩾200 beats per min (OR 5, P = 0.01) than cats without the disease. Conclusions and relevance Hyperthyroidism does not appear to be uncommon in the South African cat population. Risk factors for hyperthyroidism, specifically older age and eating canned food, were present in this as in other reported populations.

Caseous lymphadenitis: Present and near forgotten from persistent vaccination?

Ovine caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is a serious disease of the global sheep industry, mainly causing losses from abattoir condemnations and in some countries, compromised productivity. However in Australia, CLA is now of minimal concern on-farm with cases reported rarely, although the disease remains an important food quality issue for abattoirs. There is evidence from longitudinal abattoir surveillance that CLA prevalence has been declining, from estimates of 26% in 1995–5.2% in 2009. Change management factors relevant to reduced prevalence and producer concerns for CLA in Australia were examined, including drivers and motivation for change, resistance to change, knowledge management, farming systems dimensions and leadership. Although extension programs addressing disease risk factors, such associations of CLA with dipping for external parasite control and frequency of close confinement, may be of relevance to improved disease risk management by producers, improved CLA control on many Australian sheep farms is considered largely attributable to the introduction of vaccination programs for CLA in 1983, with inclusion of CLA antigen within clostridial vaccines (‘6 in 1′ vaccine). This innovation enabled routine annual CLA vaccination to occur in an increasing proportion of the national flock, despite several surveys that have shown that producer knowledge of CLA is low. However, promoting the persistent use of ‘combination' vaccination to continue suppression of CLA infection and improved biosecurity to reduce re-introduction of disease, plus targeting properties that are not using vaccination, remains a challenge for animal health authorities. As CLA in Australia is now primarily an issue for the sheep meat processing sector, efforts to improve feedback to producers suffering carcass condemnations at slaughter should be encouraged. Persistent vaccination for CLA improves the health and welfare of sheep and this strategy deserve wider recognition in all sheep and goat production countries where vaccine usage is sporadic.

Histopathological and behaviour effects of formaldehyde treatment in juvenile mullet,Mugil liza(Valenciennes)

Considerable losses may be related to diseases caused by parasites in aquaculture. Formaldehyde (37% gas dissolved in water) is an effective chemotherapeutic, widely used to control ectoparasites in fish. However, for many species of fish used in aquaculture, the control of external parasites and the deleterious effects of formaldehyde in short-term baths are still uncertain. In order to clarify some gaps, 1 h-prophylactic baths (67.5, 135, 270, 405 and 540 mg L−1 formaldehyde in triplicate) were performed in juvenile mullet, Mugil liza (Valenciennes). Results showed that prophylactic baths of 135 mg L−1 formaldehyde by 1 h did not cause death in tested mullets. At this concentration, histopathologies were mild and fish survival was high. However, fish exposed to increasing concentrations of formaldehyde presented severe histopathologies in the gills besides behavioural and morphological alterations. The histopathological and behavioural implications of formaldehyde use in aquaculture are discussed.

Comparison of helminth and hard tick infestation between riding and work horses in Ahwaz, Iran

Millions of dollars are spent every year for internal and external parasite control in horses; however, parasites remain one of the most important problems affecting their health and well-being (Raynaud et al. 1983). All horses have internal parasites and, if left untreated, ticks and worms can rob a horse of precious blood nutrients and energy. Problems associated with parasite infection include diarrhoea, colic, weight loss, poor growth, emaciation, impaired growth, predisposition to other infectious diseases and unexpected sudden death (Taylor et al. 2007). The common parasitic infestations of horses are caused by mange mites, lice, bots, ticks, roundworms, palisade worms, Trichonema and pinworms (Kingscote 1938). Ticks have eight legs (insects have six); non-engorged, they are small, flat and brown. Adult engorged ticks are dark blue-grey and the size of a pea. When they drop off, they leave behind a crater-like sore in the middle of an itchy/painful lump (George et al. 2002). Ticks are external parasites which suck blood from the host animal. Two general groups of ticks attack horses: hard ticks and soft ticks. Hard ticks have a long association with the host, feed slowly, take a large blood meal, drop from the host to moult and lay many eggs (Kaufman et al. 2009). The treatment of infected animals depends on the results of diagnostic tests, counts of eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) as well as methods for culturing, counting and identifying third-stage (L3) strongyle larvae per gram of faeces (LPG). For horses, such information does not exist in the published literature (Nielsen et al. 2010). A faecal egg count test is a microscopic examination for parasite eggs in fresh manure. This simple test can indicate which parasites are present and in what numbers. Adult parasites lay eggs or proglottids (portions of their bodies containing eggs) that pass out of the intestinal tract in the faeces. Internal parasite eggs can be detected in the faeces by performing a faecal egg count test. A faecal egg count test establishes the number of parasite eggs present in each gram of manure tested (EPG). Traditionally, a horse with an EPG value of 200 to 500 would be considered a candidate for treatment. In a herd, an average EPG value between all horses of 100 to 300 has long been considered the threshold between normal and unusual levels of parasite infestation (Evans and Rood 2009). Faecal worm egg counts, if conducted correctly, can also determine the general type of parasites present such as pinworms, threadworms, roundworms (Parascaris), strongyles and tapeworms. The Modified Wisconsin Sugar Flotation Method is highly sensitive for use with horses (three eggs per 1 g of sample) such that negative counts indicate the absence of adult parasites. Repeated negative information on the total number of worm eggs shed per pound of faeces can determine the rate by which an animal is re-contaminating its environment (Coates 2007). In the Ahwaz region, worm parasite infection is one of the most abundant animal diseases which cause economic losses and health problems for the infected animal husbandries. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of external and internal parasite infestation in about 120 horses in this region since little data exist in this field in Iran.

Bartonella spp. DNA in Cardiac Tissues from Dogs in Colorado and Wyoming

Several Bartonella species (spp.) have been identified in dogs diagnosed with infectious endocarditis (IE) or myocarditis. To interrogate cardiac tissues of dogs with suspected IE for the presence of Bartonella spp. DNA of dogs in the Rocky Mountain states. Nine dogs with a clinical diagnosis of endocarditis from January 1990 to June 2008 were included. In this retrospective study, medical records at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital were searched. Animals were excluded if there was no diagnosis of IE in the original necropsy report. Paraffin embedded tissue blocks and medical records were available from 9 dogs. Total DNA was extracted from the cardiac tissues and assessed for Bartonella spp. DNA by 3 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. For positive samples, the Bartonella spp. were determined by genetic sequencing or fluorogenic real-time PCR. Bartonella henselae DNA was amplified from the tissues of 7 dogs; Bartonella vinsonii subsp berkhoffii DNA was amplified concurrently from 3 dogs. Six dogs were from Colorado and 1 was from Wyoming. Flea or tick infestations were reported in 2 dogs. Bartonella spp. should be on the differential list for dogs in the Rocky Mountain states. The results emphasize the need for routine use of external parasite control products even in regions perceived to have low risk for flea and tick infestations.

Comparison of Reimplantation Strategies Using Synovex Choice and Synovex Plus with Revalor-XS in Feedlot Steers

A feedlot experiment (160 d) was conducted using 1,231 yearling crossbred steers (380 kg) to evaluate reimplant programs using Synovex Choice and Synovex Plus compared with a one-dose program using Revalor-XS. Reimplanted cattle received respiratory viral revaccination and external parasite control at reprocessing. Cattle receiving Revalor-XS were not removed from their pens at reprocessing. Treatments (6 replications) were 1) Synovex Choice on d 0 and Synovex Choice on d 79 (Ch + Ch), 2) Synovex Choice on d 0 and Synovex Plus on d 70 (Ch + P), and 3) Revalor-XS on d 0 (Rev-XS). There was a tendency (P < 0.07) for final BW, total BW gain, and ADG to be greater for cattle implanted with Ch + P compared with Ch + Ch or Rev-XS. The G:F was improved by 3.8% (P = 0.01) for steers receiving Ch + P compared with those receiving Ch + Ch or Rev-XS. Cost of BW gain was 4.0% lower (P = 0.01) for cattle implanted with Ch + P than for those implanted with Rev-XS or Ch + Ch. Hot carcass weight tended (P = 0.07) to be 6 to 7 kg more for cattle receiving Ch + P than for those receiving Ch + Ch or Rev-XS. Dressing percentage was not different (P = 0.72) among treatments and averaged 64.54%. Carcasses grading USDA Prime + Choice tended (P = 0.08) to be greater for cattle implanted with Ch + Ch than for those implanted with Ch + P or Rev-XS. Average USDA YG was not different (P = 0.88) among treatments. An average improvement in cost of BW gain of $17.62/steer was realized for Ch + P compared with the other 2 treatments.

External parasite control for horses

External parasite control for horses

External parasite control for horses

External parasite control for horses

The toxicity of pesticides and organics to Mysid shrimps can be predicted from Daphnia spp. toxicity data

Lack of marine toxicity data for most pesticides currently in use severely restricts the ability of environmental scientists to predict the impacts of discharges to the marine environment. This paper reviews the available aquatic toxicity data for a total of 18 pesticides and an additional 19 non-pesticide organics. Eleven of these compounds were chosen because of their use for external parasite control on sheep, the remaining compounds were chosen based on the availability of Mysid shrimp toxicity data. The sheep ectoparasiticides were chosen as other work, at the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ), has been assessing the toxicity of woolscouring wastewater. A high correlation ( R 2=0.945, n=9) was found between published Mysidopsis bahia (96 h LC 50) toxicity data and those of Daphnia spp. (48 h EC 50), after transforming the data to log μmol/l. Further extending the database to include non-pesticide organics did not adversely affect this correlation ( R 2=0.941, n=28) or alter the slope of the correlation curve. These high correlation coefficients indicate that acute Daphnia spp. toxicity data may be able to be used to predict Mysid shrimp ( M. bahia) sensitivities, thus providing a risk assessment tool for use in marine or estuarine situations. It was also apparent that Mysids are generally more sensitive to organics that Daphnia.

Comparison of Ivermectin and Conventional External Parasite Control in Young Beef Cows

A study was conducted in north central Montana to determine whether three consecutive annual applications of ivermectin improved performance of young cows as compared to a conventional external parasite treatment, topically applied phenyl phosphorothioate. Two hundred and four heifers were paired by breed and weight and randomly assigned to ivermectin or conventional treatments. Treatments were applied in October for 3 consecutive yr at roughly 7, 19, and 31 mo of age. Heifers treated with ivermectin did not gain more than (P=0.55) heifers receiving the conventional treatment in a 140-d feedlot test. Age at puberty and pregnancy rates of heifers from both treatment groups were also similar (P>0.05). As first-calf heifers, ivermectin did not improve (P>0.20) body condition score and weight at calving over the conventional external parasite control. Milk production and weaning weights of calves from first-calf heifers were also similar (P>0.20) for both treatments. Performance of second-calf heifers and their calves was similar (P>0.05) for both treatment groups. Fecal egg counts of heifers treated with ivermectin tended to be lower (P≤0.07) than the conventional treatment, but all fecal egg counts were low. Mean fecal egg counts of heifers 2 mo after application were 9.9 and 25.2 eggs per gram of feces for the ivermectin and conventional treatments, respectively. Consistent annual treatment of young beef cows with ivermectin also did not affect weaning weights of their calves as compared to a conventional external parasite control treatment. The internal parasite control provided by ivermectin also did not improve the reproductive performance or milk production of young cows grazing semiarid rangelands.

Chlorpyrifos Toxicosis in Two Cats

Organophosphate compounds are widely employed for control of external parasites in cats and for control of insects in homes and yards. Chlorpyrifos is a long-acting organophosphate (OP) available for use as a systemically and topically acting parasiticide and insecticide in cattle. Its use on cats is not recommended, and no previous clinical cases of toxicosis have been described. Two cases of chronic chlorpyrifos toxicosis in cats are presented and pathophysiology as well as treatment are discussed. The cats had been showing signs of chronic organophosphate toxicosis before diazepam administration. Signs of acute organophosphate toxicosis were precipitated after diazepam was given. Treatment with pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) and atropine was attempted. Response to treatment was dramatic and complete recovery was achieved with six injections of pralidoxime and atropine administration.