External Focus Group Research Articles

Children's learning of tennis skills is facilitated by external focus instructions

The present study examined the effects of instructions promoting external versus internal foci of attention on the learning of a tennis forehand stroke in 11-year old children. Three groups of participants practiced hitting tennis balls at a target. External focus group participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the racquet, while participants in the internal focus group were asked to direct their attention to the movements of their arm. Participants in a control group did not receive attentional focus instructions. Two days after the practice phase (60 trials), learning was assessed in retention and transfer tests. The results showed that the external focus group demonstrated greater accuracy in hitting a target relative to the two other groups in retention, and relative to the internal focus group in transfer. We conclude that instructions inducing an external focus of attention can enhance children's sport skill learning.

IMPACT OF SHIFT IN FOCUS OF ATTENTION ON LEARNING TABLE TENNIS BACKHAND WITH SELF-TALK IN HIGH SCHOOL FEMALES STUDENTS

Aim: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of variability of attentional focus distance by self-talk on the learning of table tennis backhand. Methods: Therefore, 80 high school girls by mean age 16(+-0/62) yr. were randomly selected from sport school of Sanandaj and assigned to 5 groups. After pretest, the participants performed 180 forehand strokes during 6 sessions with repeating the words *slightly rotation* in the internal focus group *slightly open* in the near external focus group, *over the net* in the far external focus group, and each of the words *slightly rotation, slightly open, and over the net* respectively in each 2 sessions in the increasing distance of attentional focus group. Control group performed without self-talk during acquisition phase. Retention test was performed 48 hours after acquisition test in the same situation without self-talk, and after half an hour break, transfer test was done by changing the direction of target (parallel forehand) without self-talk. The accuracy and the pattern of forehand strokes were measured by a 5 point-scale (Liao and Masters, 2001) and researcher-made scale, respectively. At the end of acquisition phase, participants filled out the frequency and self-talk beliefs questionnaire. Results: According to the results of 2-factor mixed ANOVA, acquisition, retention, and transfer of backhand accuracy in internal focus of attention group were significantly lower than other groups (p<0.05). Furthermore, the effect of increasing attentional focus distance on acquisition of backhand pattern was significant. The effect of near external attentional focus on retention of pattern was significant. But transfer of stroke pattern in control group was significantly more than far external focus group (p<0.05). Conclusions: Thus, it is recommended to use self-talk by increasing attentional focus and near external attentional focus and not to use internal focus of attention to instruct backhand to novice adolescents.

The effects of attentional focus on jump performance and knee joint kinematics in patients after ACL reconstruction

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to determine the effect of an internal and external attentional focus on single leg hop jump distance and knee kinematics in patients after ACL reconstruction (ACLR). DesignExperimental. SettingOutpatient physical therapy facility. ParticipantsSixteen patients after ACLR. Main Outcome MeasuresPatients received either an instruction with an internal focus or an external focus before performing a single leg hop jump. The jump distance, knee valgus angle at initial contact, peak knee valgus angle, knee flexion angle at initial contact, peak knee flexion angle, total ROM and time to peak angles for the injured and non-injured legs were recorded. A repeated measures MANOVA was used to determine significance between the experimental conditions with the primary outcome measures as dependent variables. ResultsThe external focus group had significant larger knee flexion angles at initial contact, peak knee flexion, total ROM and time to peak knee flexion for the injured legs. ConclusionsThis study demonstrates the applicability of using an external focus during rehabilitation of patients after ACLR to enhance safer movement patterns compared to an internal focus of attention and subsequently may help to reduce second ACL injury risk.

Immediate effects of two attention strategies on trunk control on patients after stroke. A randomized controlled pilot trial

Objective: To compare the immediate effects of an external focus to enhance lateral body weight shift after stroke. Design: Randomized controlled trial. Setting: Inpatient rehabilitation hospital. Subjects: Twenty patients after stroke (11 males; mean (SD) age 72.2 (7.4) years; duration of illness 56 (14) days; there were 9 (45%) left-sided strokes) with impaired sitting balance were randomly allocated into two groups either external focus (n = 10) or internal focus (n = 10). Intervention: Patients in the external focus group, while sitting, were instructed to shift as much weight as they could sidewards to an external point next to their hip. Patients in the internal focus group were instructed to shift as much weight as they could sidewards to their hip. Main outcome measures: Immediate lateral body weight shift as well as anterior–posterior deviation was measured in centimetres with a sensor mat. Results: Patients in the external focus group achieved greater lateral body weight shift than those in the internal focus group (mean shift (SD) 8.7 (2.6) cm vs. 4.5 (3.3) cm, respectively; P = 0.006). However, there were no significant differences in anterior–posterior deviation (mean shift (SD) 2.3 (1.3) cm vs. 1.2 (1.2) cm, respectively; P = 0.08). Conclusion: Using an external focus may lead immediately to an enhanced lateral body weight shift while sitting, without increasing anterior–posterior deviation.

주의 집중 방법이 다트 던지기 역학에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different types of attentional focus(internal focus vs. external focus) on the dart throwing mechanics. Seven expert dart throwing athletes were assigned to an internal focus group and other seven ath- letes were assigned to an external focus group. Each group was asked to throw dart either under verbal instruction or without instruction. During dart throwing, accuracy(radial error), consistency(bivariate variable error), dart velocity, acceleration, elbow joint ROM, elbow joint angular velocity, EMD(electromechanical delay), iEMG of biceps brachii and triceps brachii, and CI(coac- tivation index) were collected and analyzed. Nither instruction type nor instruction itself affected in accuracy and consistency. However, in dart velocity and acceleration, there was an interaction between instruction and attentional focus types. Velocity and acceleration increased in the internal condition, where as they decreased in the external condition. The ROM of elbow joint did not affected by instruction and attention type. However, similar to dart velocity and acceleration, angular velocity increased in internal focus group, while it decreased in external focus group. EMG showed no difference with any condition. In conclusion, internal focus is better than external focus for dart throwing.

The influence of attentional focus on the development of skill representation in a complex action

ObjectivesRecent research has indicated that performers' mental representation of a motor skill changes over the course of learning. In the present study, we sought to ascertain whether the type of instructions (instructions that emphasize either an internal or external focus of attention) influences the development of skill representation during motor learning. DesignParticipants without golf experience were recruited to practice a golf putting task over the course of three training days. Participants were randomly assigned to either an internal focus (focus on the swing of the arms; n = 10) or external focus (focus on the speed of the ball roll; n = 10) learning group. Changes in putting performance and mental representation structure were assessed over the course of learning, as well as during a follow-up retention test two days after practice. MethodsMental representation structure was measured employing the structural dimensional analysis of mental representations (SDA-M), which provided psychometric data on the structure of the mental representation in long-term memory. Additionally, the change in putting accuracy and consistency was recorded over the course of learning. ResultsFindings indicated that the external focus group performed with greater accuracy and consistency during training, and revealed a larger degree of development in their mental representation of the putting task. ConclusionsOverall, our findings suggest that facilitating the link between an action and its effect by means of an external focus is crucial for motor performance as well as the development of skill representation.

Effects of Focus of Attention and Type of Practice on Learning and Self-Efficacy in Dart Throwing

The present investigation studied the effect of focus of attention and type of practice on self-efficacy and learning during a demonstration of the dart-throwing skill. 48 university students (M = 22.5 yr., SD = 3.6) without any experience of dart throwing were divided into four groups according to the type of practice (physical and observational) and focus of attention (internal and external) and practiced a dart-throwing task. Self-efficacy in dart throwing was measured at the pre-test, acquisition, and transfer phases. The internal-focus group concentrated on their limb function, whereas the external-focus group concentrated on the darts and the target during the demonstration. Observational groups only watched during the acquisition phase, then performed the task in the retention and transfer phases. There was a main effect of focus of attention in the retention and transfer phases after controlling self-efficacy, with external focus groups showing higher performance than internal focus groups. External focus of attention could facilitate the acquisition of a motor skill during observation and may build and/or be supported by self-efficacy.

Effect of external and internal focus of attention on acquisition, retention, and transfer phase of motor learning in Parkinson's disease

Abstract The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of external focus of attention and internal focus of attention in different phases of motor learning in people with Parkinson's disease (PD). Twenty-four patients (17 men and 7 women) with idiopathic PD participated in the study. The participants were randomly assigned to either the internal focus of attention group (n = 12) or the external focus of attention group (n = 12). The task was to throw darts at the centre of a target. The attention of the patients in the internal focus group was directed at the movements of upper extremity joints, whereas the attention of the patients in the external focus group was directed at the target, dart, and dart course. The results showed that the external focus group had significantly less mean radial error for the acquisition phase (fifth block, p = 0.005) and the transfer phase (p = 0.005). In summary, an external focus of attention enhanced learning in the last block of the acquisition phase and the whole transfer phase, whereas an internal focus of attention resulted in no improvement. External focus of attention may be the preferred method for facilitating the learning of motor skills in patients with PD.

ISO 14001 certified plants in Brazil – taxonomy and practices

Abstract Research on taxonomies has helped in shedding light on similarities between firms in a particular group and differences between each group. However, few studies have analyzed how operations managers of manufacturing firms in emerging countries adopt diverse strategies of environmental management, with diverse operational practices and results. This study fills this gap by proposing a taxonomy for ISO 14001-certified plants, describing the differences for each group for a set of key variables related to internal and external perspectives. For this purpose, we conducted a survey of ISO 14001-certified manufacturing plants in Brazil, in a restricted set of industries including chemical, manufactured metal products, and electronics. A sample of 99 plants was analyzed using multivariate data analysis techniques, such as principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). We have identified three clusters, according to their motivations to certification: internal focus, external focus, and holistic group. Internal focus companies are characterized by their emphasis on internal operations and resources. External focus companies deal with social pressure and institutions that regulate the environment. Holistic companies place high value on all motivation dimensions regardless if they are internal or external. We present an illustrative example related to the Holistic group. Companies in this group present a more efficient use of raw materials and inputs as well a higher integration with suppliers and external research and development (R&D) centers. This group combines external actions with internal results regarding environmental management. Thus, the results suggest that external integration and the improvement of internal processes efficiency allow a more integrated approach in environmental practices, resulting in better environmental performance. On the other hand, companies with the external focus strategy tend to have lower environmental performance and lower levels of operational practices linked to the environmental management.

An external focus of attention enhances motor learning in children with intellectual disabilities

The present study examined whether the learning benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) relative to an internal focus (i.e. on the movement), found previously in non-disabled children and adults would also be found in children with intellectual disabilities (IDs). Participants (n = 24; average age: 12.2 years) with mild intellectual deficiency (IQ = 51-69) practiced throwing beanbags at a target. In the external focus group, participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the beanbag, while in the internal focus group, participants were asked to direct their attention to the movement of their hand. The practice phase consisted of 40 trials, and attentional focus reminders were given after every third trial. Learning was assessed 1 day later by retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests, each consisting of 10 trials. No focus reminders were given on that day. The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group, as evidenced by more accurate tosses on the transfer test. The present findings show that instructions that induce an external focus of attention can enhance motor learning in children with IDs.

CSM 2012 Orthopaedic Section Platform Presentations (Abstracts OPL1–OPL64)

CSM 2012 Orthopaedic Section Platform Presentations (Abstracts OPL1–OPL64)

Attentional Focus and Performance Anxiety: Effects on Simulated Race-Driving Performance and Heart Rate Variability

Previous studies have demonstrated that an external focus can enhance motor learning compared to an internal focus. The benefits of adopting an external focus are attributed to the use of less effortful automatic control processes, while an internal focus relies upon more effort-intensive consciously controlled processes. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a distal external focus with an internal focus in the acquisition of a simulated driving task and subsequent performance in a competitive condition designed to increase state anxiety. To provide further evidence for the automatic nature of externally controlled movements, the study included heart rate variability (HRV) as an index of mental effort. Sixteen participants completed eight blocks of four laps in either a distal external or internal focus condition, followed by two blocks of four laps in the competitive condition. During acquisition, the performance of both groups improved; however, the distal external focus group outperformed the internal focus group. The poorer performance of the internal focus group was accompanied by a larger reduction in HRV, indicating a greater investment of mental effort. In the competition condition, state anxiety increased, and for both groups, performance improved as a function of the increased anxiety. Increased heart rate and self-reported mental effort accompanied the performance improvement. The distal external focus group also outperformed the internal focus group across both neutral and competitive conditions and this more effective performance was again associated with lower levels of HRV. Overall, the results offer support for the suggestion that an external focus promotes a more automatic mode of functioning. In the competitive condition, both foci enhanced performance and while the improved performance may have been achieved at the expense of greater compensatory mental effort, this was not reflected in HRV scores.

Acquisition and Transfer of Postural Control Among Individuals With Chronic Ankle Instability Following a 3-Day Balance Training Program

Balance training has been suggested to improve postural control and reduce reinjury rates in those with chronic ankle instability (CAI). Typical balance training programs last several weeks, but recent evidence suggests that a 3-day balance training program may also improve postural control. Therefore, our primary purpose was to determine whether a 3-day balance training program improves balance in those with CAI. The secondary purpose was to determine whether attentional focus direction affects balance improvement magnitude. Two 16-participant cohorts were pretested and posttested on a Biodex Stability System and the Star Excursion Balance Test. The balance training cohort, divided into internal and external attentional focus groups, underwent twenty 20-second trials on level 6 of a Biodex Stability System for 3 consecutive days. The results indicate that 3 days of balance training failed to improve balance in those with CAI. Thus, balance training programs should be longer than 3 days.

Effect of Different External Attention of Focus Instruction on Learning of Golf Putting Skill

The effect of different sources of external attentional focus on learning a motor skill was assessed in the present study. 30 students (12 men, 18 women) participated voluntarily and were divided, according to type of external focus, into target, club swing, and target-club swing groups. The task was a golf putting skill. The target focus group attended to the target (hole), the club swing focus group attended to the execution of the club's swing, and the target-club swing focus group attended to both. All participants performed 50 trials of the putting skill in the acquisition phase and 10 trials in the 24-hr. delayed retention phase. The dependent variable was the error in the putting skill measured as the distance from the hole to the ball after each strike. Results showed the target-club swing focus group had better scores in the acquisition and retention phases than the other groups. It was concluded that external focus instruction helped the learners to integrate target cue with action cue and is more effective in skill learning than other external-focus instructions. These results support the claims of ecological psychology theorists concerning the effects of external focus of attention.

An external focus of attention enhances balance learning in older adults

Studies with young adults have shown that an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) results in more effective motor learning and greater automaticity than an internal focus (i.e., on one's own body movements). The present study examined whether instructions inducing an external versus internal attentional focus would differentially affect the learning of a balance task in 32 older adults (24 females and 8 males, mean age: 69.4 years), divided equally, by number and gender, into two groups. The task required participants to stand on a balance platform (stabilometer) tilting to the left and right, and to try to keep the platform as close to horizontal as possible during each 30-s trial. The external focus group was instructed to concentrate on keeping markers on the platform horizontal, while the internal focus group was instructed to concentrate on keeping their feet horizontal. The dependent variable was time in balance (i.e., platform movements within ±5°). Participants performed 10 practice trials on day 1, with focus reminders given before each trial. Learning was assessed by a retention test, consisting of five trials without instructions, performed 1 day later. The external focus group outperformed the internal focus group in retention [ F(4, 120) = 3.46, p = .01]. The results demonstrate that the learning benefits of an external attentional focus are generalizable to older learners.

Where to Focus Attention When Performing the Jump Float Serve in Volleyball

The purpose of this study was to determine if an external attention focus was more effective than an internal attention focus for college female volleyball players practicing the complex open skill of the jump float serve. Sixteen college females with prior competitive volleyball playing experience were matched into either an internal or external attention focus group, each serving a total of 30 balls in three blocks of ten serves. After the pre-test, two days of practice and day off, a post-test was conducted for both groups. Results demonstrated a 25% improvement for the internal focus group and a 26.8% improvement for the external focus group. These results suggest that both internal and external focuses of attention are beneficial for practicing the complex jump float serve. However, a paired t-test from the improvement scores of both groups demonstrated no significant difference between the two practice conditions suggesting that either an internal focus or an external focus of attention is effective for practicing the complex jump float serve. In this particular study, external focus of attention was not found to be more effective than an internal focus of attention. Since these results do not support much of the research done with attention focus and sport skills, additional studies are needed comparing internal and external focus of attention, especially when practicing open sport skills.

A model of development for academic administration decentralization of lab schools in the lower southern area

This study searched for an appropriate approach and model for decentralization, covering the scope and operation of decentralized academic administration of lab schools in Lower Southern area of Thailand. The study utilized the documentary research methodology combined with field research. The first stage dealt with the compilation of related research literate from articles, interviews, studies, policy statements and strategic plans with a view to formulating a conceptual model for decentralized academic administration. The second stage involved in-depth interviews with seven experts in the field from the provincial Office of Educational Area, using the snowball technique. The third stage consisted of conducting Focus Group with 12 administrators and academic teachers from 12 voluntary lab schools in six provinces. From the in-depth interviews with experts in the fields, the appropriate model for decentralized academic administration in the lab schools in the Lower Southern area can be generalized in terms of decentralized academic administration and educational management. Aspects of decentralization include flexibility, participation and accountability. These aspects can be subcategorized into 14 tasks: 1) curriculum development for the school, 2) learning management, 3) measurement, evaluation and grade transfer, 4) research for development of educational quality in the school, 5) development and promotion of learning sources, 6) educational supervision, 7) educational guidance, 8) development of internal quality assurance and educational standard, 9) community promotion for academic strength, 10) collaboration for academic development between the school and other organizations, 11) academic promotion and support at various levels, such as person, family, organization, institution, enterprise and other educational institutions, 12) academic regulations and practices for the school, 13) selection of textbooks for the school, and 14) development of media and the use of educational technology. External assessment and focus group performance indicate quality students, professional teachers and administrators, quality school and quality community.

A CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF CAMPUS PORTAL IMPLEMENTATION

This study investigates the status of portal implementation in the academic world. A two-stage cluster analysis was used to divide the sample colleges and universities into three groups (Internal Focus Implementers, External Focus Implementers and Starters) based on the portal features implemented by each school. The differences among the three groups were assessed based on the type of school and their status of portal adoption, implementation and evaluation. The results show that in terms of status of portal adoption and implementation, Internal Focus Implementers are the most advanced group, the External Focus group is in the middle and the Starters are the least advanced one. Most schools in the Internal Focus group are private schools, have the longest use of campus portals, favor Blackboard as the portal software, have widely shared responsibilities for the content of the portals, consider integration and implementation of a single logon as the biggest implementation challenges and are the most satisfied with their portal. In contrast, the Starters lag behind in terms of the adoption and implementation of the portal. For example, they have the shortest history of portal implementation, do not have dominant portal software, and have only one or two departments in charge of the content of the portal. In addition, they are the least satisfied with their portals.

Effect of Attention Focus on Acquisition and Retention of Postural Control Following Ankle Sprain

Laufer Y, Rotem-Lehrer N, Ronen Z, Khayutin G, Rozenberg I. Effect of attention focus on acquisition and retention of postural control following ankle sprain. Objective To examine the effect of attentional focus instructions and dynamic balance training on ankle sprain recovery. Design Randomized controlled trial. Setting Outpatient physical therapy department. Participants Forty volunteers (age range, 19–33y) referred to treatment within 4 months after sustaining a grade 1 or 2 ankle sprain with no concurrent impairments. Participants were randomly allocated to 1 of 2 groups differing in training instructions. Intervention Postural control training consisted of ten 20-second trials, performed on 3 consecutive days, at 2 stability levels of the Biodex Stability System (BSS). Training instructions directed the participants to either an internal or an external focus of attention. Assessments were conducted on the BSS pre- and post-training, and 48 hours after the last session (retention test). Main Outcome Measures Overall stability as indicated by variance in platform displacement in all directions; anteroposterior (AP) variance of platform displacement; and mediolateral variance of platform displacement. Results Increases in overall and AP stability were observed immediately following training in both groups and were maintained at the retention test. Interaction effect indicates greater improvement in the external-focus group. Conclusions Our results suggest that external focus of attention is advantageous for the learning of a postural control task following an ankle injury.

Simply distracting learners is not enough: More evidence for the learning benefits of an external focus of attention

This experiment followed up on previous studies showing learning benefits of instructions directing the performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) relative to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (internal focus). The main purpose was to determine whether similar advantages could be achieved by preventing learners from focusing on their movements through the use of an attention-demanding secondary task. Participants practiced balancing on a stabilometer. External and internal focus group participants were instructed to focus on markers attached to the balance platform or on their feet, respectively. A third group was required to shadow a story presented to them while balancing. In addition, a control group without attentional focus instructions or a secondary task was included. The external focus group showed more effective balance learning than the other groups. The results provide evidence for the learning benefits of external focus instructions. In addition, they show that similar advantages cannot be achieved by simply preventing learners from focusing on the task to be learned.