External Focus Condition Research Articles

Attentional Focus Effects in Balance Acrobats

Performing and learning motor skills has been shown to be enhanced if the performer adopts an external relative to internal focus (or no focus) of attention (Wulf, 2007). The present study examined the generalizability of this effect to top-level performers (balance acrobats). Participants performed a balance task (standing on an inflated rubber disk) under each of three attentional focus conditions: (a) external focus (i.e., minimize movements of the disk), (b) internal focus (i.e., minimize movements of the feet), and (c) control conditions (no focus instructions). While there were no differences between conditions in the amount of postural sway, the frequency of movement adjustments was higher in the control condition, relative to both external and internal focus conditions. This suggests that movement automaticity and postural stability were greatest when the balance experts were free to adopt their “normal” focus of attention. The finding implies that there may be a limit to the performance-enhancing effects of external focus instructions for top-level performers. The findings are discussed in terms of action control levels and possible changes in the optimal attentional focus with the performer's level of expertise.

Increases in Jump-and-Reach Height through an External Focus of Attention

The present study examined whether the previously observed benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., focusing on the movement effect), relative to an internal focus (i.e., focusing on one's body movements) and control conditions, would generalize to tasks requiring maximum force production, such as jumping. In two experiments, participants performed a vertical jump-and-reach task. A Vertec™ measurement device was used to determine jump-and-reach height. Participants performed under three conditions in a within-participant design: External focus (i.e., focus on the rungs of the Vertec that were to be touched), internal focus (i.e., focus on the finger, with which the rungs were to be touched), and control conditions (i.e., focus on jumping as high as possible). Experiment 1 showed that participants' jump-and-reach height was greatest with an external focus. Those results were replicated in Experiment 2. In addition, it was observed that the vertical displacement of the center of mass was greater under the external focus condition, compared to the other two conditions. This suggests that participants jumped higher by producing greater forces when they adopted an external focus. These findings indicate that the previously shown benefits of an external attentional focus generalize to tasks requiring maximal force production

Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention

The performance and learning of motor skills has been shown to be enhanced if the performer adopts an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) compared to an internal focus (focus on the movements themselves) [G. Wulf, W. Prinz, Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: a review, Psychon. Bull. Rev. 8 (2001) 648–660]. While most previous studies examining attentional focus effects have exclusively used performance outcome (e.g., accuracy) measures, in the present study electromyography (EMG) was used to determine neuromuscular correlates of external versus internal focus differences in movement outcome. Participants performed basketball free throws under both internal focus (wrist motion) and external focus (basket) conditions. EMG activity was recorded for m. flexor carpi radialis, m. biceps brachii, m. triceps triceps brachii, and m. deltoid of each participant's shooting arm. The results showed that free throw accuracy was greater when participants adopted an external compared to an internal focus. In addition, EMG activity of the biceps and triceps muscles was lower with an external relative to an internal focus. This suggests that an external focus of attention enhances movement economy, and presumably reduces “noise” in the motor system that hampers fine movement control and makes the outcome of the movement less reliable.

Increased Movement Accuracy And Reduced EMG Activity In Response To An External Focus Of Attention

PURPOSE The performance and learning of motor skills has been shown to be enhanced if the performer adopts an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) compared to an internal focus (focus on the movements themselves; for a review, see Wulf & Prinz, Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2001). While most previous studies examining attentional focus effects have exclusively used performance outcome (e.g., accuracy measures, in the present study electromyography (EMG) was used to determine neuromuscular correlates of external versus internal focus differences in movement outcome. METHODS Participants performed basketball free throws under both internal focus (wrist motion) and external focus (basket) conditions. EMG activity was recorded for m. flexor carpi radialis, m. biceps brachii, m. triceps triceps brachii, and m. deltoid of each participant's shooting arm. RESULTS The results showed that free throw accuracy was greater when participants adopted an external compared to an internal focus. In addition, EMG activity of the biceps and triceps muscles was lower with an external relative to an internal focus. CONCLUSIONS This suggests that an external focus of attention enhances movement economy, and presumably reduces “noise” in the motor system that hampers fine movement control and makes the outcome of the movement less reliable.

POSTURAL CONTROL CHANGES IN CVA PATIENTS A FUNCTION OF SUPRA-POSTURAL ATTENTIONAL FOCUS

Recent studies have demonstrated that directing neuroligically intact performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) enhances motor performance and learning, while directing their attention to the movements themselves (internal focus) disrupts automatic control processes. Neuroligically impaired patients, however, are often provided internal focus instructions during rehabilitation, and the question arises whether such instructions help or hinder the re-acquisition of certain motor skills. PURPOSE To examine whether the attentional focus adopted on a supra-postural task influenced the postural control of stroke patients. METHODS Participants were instructed to stand quietly while lightly touching a curtain with their fingertips and asked to minimize movements of the fingers (internal focus) or to minimize movements of the sheet (external focus). Postural sway was measured via an AMTI force platform system. RESULTS Both attentional focus conditions resulted in decreased postural sway relative to baseline, however, only the internal focus instructions elicited a corresponding increase in frequency of responding (as assessed via Fast Fourier analysis). CONCLUSION Unlike previous studies which found enhanced performance under external focus conditions, these results suggest that for neuroligically impaired patients, an internal focus might be an appropriate treatment strategy.

The effects of focus of attention on attributional bias in patients experiencing auditory hallucinations

Cognitive models suggest that auditory hallucinations occur as the result of internal events attributed to an external source. The present study represents an attempt to evaluate the source monitoring performance of people who experience auditory hallucinations, specifically in terms of the suggested links between source monitoring, emotionality of stimuli and self-focused attention. The source monitoring performance of a group of 30 patients with a diagnosis of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder who experience auditory hallucinations was compared following successful experimental manipulation of their attention, designed to increase and decrease their levels of self-focused attention. The inclusion of words previously rated as emotionally salient by schizophrenic patients assessed the effect of emotionality on source monitoring performance. This study demonstrated that participants’ ratings of both internality and control of their responses to the word association task were lower in the external focus condition than the internal focus condition. Furthermore, it was found that ratings of internality and control were lower for responses to both positive and negative stimuli compared to responses to neutral stimuli, and the magnitude of these differences was amplified in the internal focus condition relative to the external focus condition. Focus of attention has a significant effect on source monitoring performance in people experiencing auditory hallucinations. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Enhancing the Learning of Sport Skills Through External-Focus Feedback

The authors examined how the effectiveness of feedback for the learning of complex motor skills is affected by the focus of attention it induces. The feedback referred specifically either to body movements (internal focus) or to movement effects (external focus). In Experiment 1, groups of novices and advanced volleyball players (N = 48) practiced “tennis” serves under internal-focus or external-focus feedback conditions in a 2 (expertise) × 2 (feedback type) design. Type of feedback did not differentially affect movement quality, but external-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy of the serves than internal-focus feedback during both practice and retention, independent of the level of expertise. In Experiment 2, the effects of relative feedback frequency as a function of attentional focus were examined. A 2 (feedback frequency: 100% vs. 33%) × 2 (feedback type) design was used. Experienced soccer players (N = 52) were required to shoot lofted passes at a target. External-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy than internal-focus feedback did. In addition, reduced feedback frequency was beneficial under internal-focus feedback conditions, whereas 100% and 33% feedback were equally effective under external-focus conditions. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of effect-related, as opposed to movement-related, feedback and also suggest that there is a need to revise current views regarding the role of feedback for motor learning.

Attentional focus on supra-postural tasks affects postural control

We examined whether the attentional focus adopted on a supra-postural task has an influence on postural control. Similar to Riley, Stoffregen, Grocki, and Turvey (Human Movement Science 18 (1999) 795), participants were instructed to stand still while lightly touching a loosely hanging sheet with their fingertips. However, instructions varied slightly under two conditions: Participants were either asked to minimize movements of the finger (internal focus) or to minimize movements of the sheet (external focus). In contrast to Riley et al.'s findings, both touch conditions resulted in increased postural sway, compared to a baseline condition (no touch). However, in line with previous findings (e.g., Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 54A (2001) 1143), frequency of responding (fast Fourier transformation) was greater under the external focus condition, compared to both internal focus and baseline conditions. The findings indicate improved static balance responses under external focus conditions and compromised static balance response under internal focus conditions.

The Learning Advantages of an External Focus of Attention in Golf

This study examined whether the learning advantages of an external focus of attention relative to an internal focus, as demonstrated by Wulf, Hööß, and Prinz (1998), would also be found for a sport skill under field-like conditions. Participants (9 women, 13 men; age range: 21–29 years) without experience in golf were required to practice pitch shots. The practice phase consisted of 80 practice trials. One group was instructed to focus on the arm swing (internal focus), whereas another group was instructed to focus on the club swing (external focus). One day after practice, a retention test of 30 trials without instructions was performed. The external-focus condition was more effective for performance during both practice and retention.

Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale: Two Validation Studies

Two studies examined the reliability and validity of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). In Study 1, each subject rode an exercise bicycle under control and external focus conditions. The PACES had high internal consistency in both conditions. As predicted, subjects reported enjoying the exercise more, as measured by the PACES, in the external focus condition. Moreover, there was a significant negative correlation in the control condition between subjects' PACES scores and their scores on a measure of boredom proneness. In Study 2, each subject rode an exercise bicycle and jogged on a minitrampoline in separate sessions; each then chose one of these activities for their third session. Again, the PACES had high internal consistency. And, as predicted, there was a significant relationship between subjects' PACES ratings (completed after each activity) and their choices of activity. Test-retest reliability was high for jogging and moderate for bicycling. These studies provide preliminary evidence of the reliability and validity of the PACES.

Evidence of non-compliance with instructions in attentional focus research

The present study examined the effects of focus instructions on the performance and learning of the standing discus throw and determined the extent of adherence to focus instructions by obtaining post-experimental verbal reports from participants. Twenty-four male college students were randomly assigned to external, internal and control focus conditions. They were given basic instruction on the throwing technique and presented a video model of the correct form. Focus instructions dealt with “trailing the movement with the discus” (external), “leading the movement with the hip” (internal), or “doing your best” (control). Four blocks of ten throws were performed in acquisition and one block of ten throws was performed in a 24hr retention test. The last two throws of each block were videotaped and measured for later analyses. The results indicated no differences between conditions on form or distance scores. However, the interviews indicated that participants in the internal and external focus groups used a combination of internal and external focus cues during acquisition and retention. These findings corroborate those of Maxwell and Masters (2002) and Poolton, Maxwell, Master, and Raab (2006) that showed learners used internal and external attentional focus cues interchangeably.