External Focus Condition Research Articles

A proximal external focus does not benefit skilled skiers

The potential performance benefit of an external focus of attention remains unexamined for skilled junior performers, especially those executing ballistic, whole-body continuous movements. Skilled junior skiers (M age = 14.09) completed slalom runs under external focus, internal focus, and control focus conditions. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant difference between attentional foci on performance times. Our data challenges the commonly held belief regarding the superiority of an external focus. Instead, we offer researchers and practitioners a more nuanced discussion concerning possible distance effects (proximal vs. distal) associated with external foci in skilled junior performers executing ballistic, whole-body movements.

Standing Long Jump Performance Is Enhanced When Using an External as Well as Holistic Focus of Attention: A Kinematic Study.

Standing long jump is known as one of the important skills in the success of athletes in most sports. In addition, one of the most effective factors that can affect standing long jump distance and kinematics is the focus of attention used by the athlete. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention instructions on standing long jump performance and kinematics. The participants were 30 novices (all males; mean age = 21.70 ± 2.21 years; mean height = 175.73 ± 6.09 cm; and mean weight = 73.76 ± 11.77 kg) who performed 12 standing long jumps in four focus of attention conditions. Internal focus, external focus, holistic focus, and control conditions were implemented in a counterbalanced order. Jump distance and maximum knee flexion angle before take-off were recorded in all trials. The results showed that in relation to the standing long jump performance, the distance was similar in external and holistic focus conditions, and both were superior to internal or control conditions. There was no difference between control and internal focus of attention conditions. The results related to movement kinematics, however, did not report a difference between the maximum flexion angles before take-off. This study replicates the benefits of external and holistic focus instructions for jump distance, but this difference was not a product of different maximum knee flexion angles. It is suggested that coaches implement external and/or holistic focus cues to maximize athlete performance in jumping tasks.

The effects of attentional focus instructions on approach jump performance

Introduction Attentional focus has been shown to significantly influence motor learning and performance, with external focus instructions enhancing performance compared to internal focus instructions. Research has also demonstrated that novice performance is improved when instructed to focus on skill execution processes rather than outcomes. However, this effect remains untested in complex jumping skills crucial to numerous sports. Purpose This study aimed to investigate the effect of internally and externally directed process and outcome focus instructions on approach jump height and approach speed in novice participants. Methods Twelve individuals aged 18 to 22 participated across three sessions: Familiarization, Test Session 1, and Test Session 2. During the test sessions, participants executed approach jumps in various conditions, each emphasizing specific cues: External Focus-Outcome, Internal Focus-Outcome, External Focus-Process, and Internal Focus-Process. Jump-and-Reach Height, Estimated Jump Height by Flight Time, and Approach Speed were assessed through 2 × 2 repeated measures ANOVAs. Results External focus and outcome conditions led to the highest jump-and-reach height ( p < .05). Process conditions yielded faster approach speed compared to outcome conditions ( p < .001), irrespective of internal or external focus direction. Estimated jump height by flight time was similar across all conditions. Conclusions The study suggests that benefits of external focus and process instructions for novices may apply only to certain performance variables in complex motor skills. Practical Applications Practitioners can optimize novices’ performance using various process- and outcome-based instructions. External, outcome-based cues enhance overall task performance, while process-based cues may improve specific technical components.

Effects of attentional focus strategies in drop landing biomechanics of individuals with unilateral functional ankle instability.

Functional Ankle Instability (FAI) is a pervasive condition that can emerge following inadequate management of lateral ankle sprains. It is hallmarked by chronic joint instability and a subsequent deterioration in physical performance. The modulation of motor patterns through attentional focus is a well-established concept in the realm of motor learning and performance optimization. However, the precise manner in which attentional focus can rehabilitate or refine movement patterns in individuals with FAI remains to be fully elucidated. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of attentional focus strategies on the biomechanics of single-leg drop landing movements among individuals with FAI. Eighteen males with unilateral FAI were recruited. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected using an infrared three-dimensional motion capture system and force plates. Participants performed single-leg drop landing tasks under no focus (baseline), internal focus (IF), and external focus (EF) conditions. Biomechanical characteristics, including joint angles, ground reaction forces, and leg stiffness, were assessed. A 2 × 3 [side (unstable and stable) × focus (baseline, IF, and EF)] Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance (RM-ANOVA) analyzed the effects of attentional focus on biomechanical variables in individuals with FAI. No significant interaction effects were observed in this study. At peak vertical ground reaction force (vGRF), the knee flexion angle was significantly influenced by attentional focus, with a markedly greater angle under EF compared to IF (p < 0.001). Additionally, at peak vGRF, the ankle joint plantarflexion angle was significantly smaller with EF than with IF (p < 0.001). Significant main effects of focus were found for peak vGRF and the time to reach peak vGRF, with higher peak vGRF values observed under baseline and IF conditions compared to EF (p < 0.001). Participants reached peak vGRF more quickly under IF (p < 0.001). Leg Stiffness (kleg) was significantly higher under IF compared to EF (p = 0.001). IF enhances joint stability in FAI, whereas EF promotes a conservative landing strategy with increased knee flexion, dispersing impact and minimizing joint stress. Integrating these strategies into FAI rehabilitation programs can optimize lower limb biomechanics and reduce the risk of reinjury.

A Holistic Focus of Attention Increases Torque Production and Electromyography Activity in an Isokinetic Elbow Flexion

Recent research suggests that both a holistic focus of attention (i.e., focusing on the general feeling of a movement) and an external focus of attention improve motor performance relative to an internal focus of attention. The purpose of this study was to determine how a holistic, internal, and external focus impacts torque production and electromyography (EMG) activity in the biceps brachii during an isokinetic elbow flexion task. Twenty-four young adults completed five repetitions of an isokinetic elbow flexion task in internal, external, and holistic focus conditions. Peak torque, integrated torque, peak EMG amplitude, integrated EMG, and neuromuscular efficiency were averaged across trials in each condition. Peak torque, integrated torque, peak EMG amplitude, and integrated EMG were all significantly higher with a holistic focus than an internal or external focus. Internal and external focus conditions did not differ from each other in any variable. No differences due to focus were observed for neuromuscular efficiency. The present results suggest that using a holistic focus of attention can be a useful strategy for motor tasks requiring peak force production. However, it does not appear that this benefit is related to increased neuromuscular efficiency, as we hypothesized.

Dominance of attentional focus: a comparative study on its impact on standing postural control in healthy younger and older adults.

Attentional focus is a phenomenon in which shifting the focus of attention alters performance of standing postural control. It can be categorized as internal focus (IF), which directs attention to the body parts, or external focus (EF), which directs attention to the external environment. Although attentional focus that improves standing postural control in younger people exhibits individual dominance, the dominance of attentional focus in standing postural control in older adults remains ambiguous. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the dominance of attentional focus in standing postural control between healthy younger and older adults, a crucial step for understanding the aging process. The participants performed a standing postural control task under the IF and EF conditions. Based on the condition during which they exhibited superior performance, the participants were divided into two groups: IF-dominant and EF-dominant. The standing postural control performance in each group under the IF and EF conditions was subsequently compared. The results showed that the participants, encompassing both younger and older adults, were divided into the IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups, confirming the dominance of attentional focus. The performance under the EF condition in older adults was also influenced by the dominance of attentional focus. These results highlight the potential importance of intervention methods based on the dominance of attentional focus, providing valuable insights into future research and clinical practice.

The effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention on standing long jump performance in novice and skilled karatekas.

An important application for training instructions is found in directing one's attentional focus. This direction can occur in different internal, external, or holistic forms. However, comparison between these three forms of instructions is a relatively recent development rarely reported at different skill levels or various sports including karate. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate the effects of three forms of instructions on standing long jump performance in skilled and novice karatekas. The participants were 60 skilled and novice karatekas (all females; mean age: 21.32±1.65) who completed 12 standing long jump trials under different focus conditions (3 trials for each condition: internal, external, holistic and control condition) in a counterbalanced order. Our findings suggested significant main effects, indicating that skilled karatekas outperformed the novices. The findings also showed that regardless of skill levels, the participants exhibited similar performance under external and holistic focus conditions while performance in both of these conditions was superior compared to performance under internal focus and control conditions. No difference was observed between the control and internal focus conditions. It seems that skilled and novice karatekas may benefit from holistic and external focus of attention instructions which enhance their motor performance. Thus, it is recommended that coaches should incorporate these two types of attentional focus instructions into their training sessions.

The Effect of Attention Focus on Heart Rate During Dart Throws In Recreation Dart Players

The Heart Rate Variability (HRV), which affects dart shot performance, is an important psycho-physiological parameter in that it provides data on the sympathetic also parasympathetic sections of the Central Nervous System. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of Internal and External Attention Foci on Heart Rates during dart shot. A total of 34 students, who were studying at Physical Education Sports Sciences Faculty, participated in the study. According to the t-test results, the HF/LF ratio measured under External Attention focus conditions was higher than the HF/LF ratio measured under Internal Attention conditions. This explains that there is a relationship between autonomic nervous system activity and fine motor skill performance. The heart rate changed according to the attention focus during motor skill (p

Autonomy-Supportive, External-Focus Instructions Optimize Children’s Motor Learning in Physical Education

An external focus of attention and autonomy support are identified as key factors to optimize motor learning; however, research in children is limited. Moreover, research has failed to examine these factors in ecologically valid motor learning settings, like physical education. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of external focus of attention when delivered using autonomy-supportive or controlling instructional language on children’s motor learning. Thirty-three novice participants (10.30 ± 0.52 years) practiced a land-based curling task under supportive (external-focus instructions delivered with supportive language), controlling (external-focus instructions delivered with controlling language), or neutral (external instructions embedded in the task aim) conditions before completing a retention and transfer test. The supportive group produced higher positive affect after practice and greater accuracy in the retention test compared with the other groups. The findings provide support for the OPTIMAL (optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning) theory of motor learning that combining an external focus and autonomy support conditions improves motor learning.

Does having an external focus in immersive virtual reality increase range of motion in people with neck pain?

BackgroundWhen instructing exercises to improve Range of Motion (ROM), clinicians often create an internal focus of attention, while motor performance may improve more when using an external focus. Objectives: Using Virtual Reality (VR), we investigated the effect of tasks with an internal and external focus on maximal ROM in people with neck pain and explored whether this effect was associated with fear of movement. MethodIn this cross-over experimental design study, the cervical ROM of 54 participants was measured while performing a target-seeking exercise in a VR-environment (external focus task) and during three maximal rotation and flexion-extension movements with the VR-headset on, without signal (internal focus task). The main statistical analysis included two dependent T-tests. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate whether the differences in ROM in both conditions were correlated to fear of movement. ResultsMaximal neck rotation was larger in the external focus condition than in the internal focus condition (mean difference: 26.4°, 95% CI [20.6, 32.3]; p < 0.001, d = 1.24). However, there was a difference favouring the internal focus condition for flexion-extension (mean difference: 8.2°, 95% CI [-14.9, −1.5]; p = 0.018, d = 0.33). The variability in ROM was not explained by variability in fear of movement (for all correlations p ≥ 0.197). ConclusionAn external focus resulted in a larger range of rotation, but our flexion-extension findings suggest that the task has to be specific to elicit such an effect. Further research, using a task that sufficiently elicits movement in all directions, is needed to determine the value of an external focus during exercise.

Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners

The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

Attentional focus differentially modulates the corticospinal and intracortical excitability during dynamic and static exercise.

Although attentional focus affects motor performance, whether corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations differ between focus strategies depending on the exercise patterns remains unclear. In the present study, using single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation, we demonstrated changes in the cortical and spinal excitability under external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF) conditions with dynamic or static exercise. Participants performed the ramp-and-hold contraction task of right index finger abduction against an object (sponge or wood) with both exercises. They were asked to concentrate on the pressure on the sponge/wood induced by finger abduction under the EF condition, and on the index finger itself under the IF condition. Motor-evoked potential (MEP) and F-wave in the premotor, phasic, or tonic phase, and short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI and LICI, respectively), and intracortical facilitation (ICF) in the premotor phase were examined by recording surface electromyographic activity in the right first dorsal interosseous muscle. Increments in the MEP amplitude were larger under the EF condition than under the IF condition in the dynamic, but not static, exercise. The F-wave, SICI, and LICI did not differ between focus conditions in both exercises. In the dynamic exercise, interestingly, ICF was greater under the EF condition than under the IF condition and positively correlated with the MEP amplitude. These results indicate that corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations to attentional focus differ depending on exercise patterns, suggesting that attentional focus differentially affects the central nervous system responsible for diverse motor behaviors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated attentional focus-dependent corticospinal and intracortical modulations in dynamic or static exercise. The corticospinal excitability was modulated differentially depending on the focus of attention during dynamic, but not static exercise. Although the reduction of intracortical GABAergic inhibition was comparable between focus conditions in both exercises, intracortical facilitation was smaller when focusing on the internal environments in the dynamic exercise, resulting in lower activation of the corticospinal tract.

Do the effects last? A comparison between internal and external focus of attention instructions on golf putting accuracy over multiple days.

The role of attentional focus is a well-explored topic in exercise sciences. Studies generally indicate that external focus (EF) enhances motor performance and learning compared with internal focus (IF). However, most studies only included one or two experimental days which limits participants' exposure to the focus conditions. This raises the question of whether the superiority of EF varies over time. Accordingly, in this pre-registered within-subject study, we examined the effects of focus instructions on golf-putting performance over four days, with 48-72 h between them. On each day, participants performed 15 putts under three instructional conditions: (1) EF, (2) IF, and (3) control, in a randomized and counterbalanced order. We observed trivial differences in performance between conditions but considerable improvements from day 1 to day 4. When using an exploratory analysis, we found that participants performed better under EF and control conditions compared with the IF condition on day 1, but not on subsequent days. Since IF instructions are more commonly used in practice, we speculate that the two other focus conditions were experienced as more novel, potentially accounting for their superiority on Day 1. Nevertheless, our results question the significance of employing EF to enhance performance.

The effects of attentional focus on speech motor control in adults who stutter with and without social evaluative threat

PurposeWe sought to investigate the effects of cued attentional shifts on speechmotor control in adults who stutter (AWS) and adults who do not stutter (ANS) when speaking under low and high social stress conditions. MethodThirteen AWS’ and 10 ANS’ lip aperture (LA) and posterior tongue (PT) movements were assessed under a Cued-Internal and Cued-External attentional focus condition with and without social stress induction (i.e. speaking to an audience). Skin conductance levels were used to measure a stress response. Speech motor control was assessed by measuring movement duration and variability of movement for LA and PT using the spatial temporal index (STI). ResultsA significant Group x Condition interaction was found for LA STI. Post-hoc comparisons indicated AWS’ LA STI significantly decreased under Cued External Focus conditions during both low and high social stress. No significant Group x Condition interaction was found for PT STI. AWS showed significantly slower tongue movements (PT) across all low and high social stress conditions; however, there was no significant Group x Condition interaction for PT or LA. DiscussionFindings yield preliminary insights into the role of attentional focus on speech motor control when speaking during high social stress. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed

Instructions Promoting an External Focus Are More Effective for Altering Impact Forces in Female Runners.

Previous studies have found that instructions promoting an external focus (EF) tend to be more effective for movement pattern retraining compared to instructions promoting an internal focus (IF), for a variety of movement tasks. However, few studies have examined how different types of instructions affect running mechanics associated with running-related injury risk. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of instructions promoting different attentional foci on impact forces during running. Cross-sectional study. Twenty uninjured female recreational runners ran at a self-selected speed with their typical pattern (no instructions condition) on an instrumented treadmill that measured ground reaction forces. Next, they were given 2 sets of instructions intended to alter their running pattern; one promoted an IF and the other promoted an EF. Repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to compare impact peaks and loading rates across the conditions (no instructions, IF, and EF), with post hoc tests conducted in the case of a significant omnibus test. There were differences among the conditions in the impact peaks (P < .001) and loading rates (P < .001). Impact peaks were lower for the IF (P = .002) and EF (P < .001) conditions compared to the no instructions condition. Loading rates were lower for the EF condition compared to the no instructions (P < .001) and IF (P < .001) conditions; there was no difference between the IF and no instructions conditions (P = .24). Our findings indicate that instructions promoting an EF may be more effective at reducing loading rates during running compared to instructions promoting an IF. Clinicians should consider these findings when attempting to retrain a runner's running pattern.

Effects of θ High Definition-Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex on the Dominance of Attention Focus in Standing Postural Control.

Attention focus affects performance in postural control while standing, and it is divided into internal focus (IF) and external focus (EF). Each individual has a predominant attention focus, and research has revealed that the dominance of attention focus may be an acquired trait. However, the impact of non-invasive brain stimulation on attention-focus dominance remains unexplored in the current literature. Here, we examined the effect of high-definition transcranial alternating current stimulation (HD-tACS) on θ waves in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) on standing postural control tasks in an EF condition for IF- and EF-dominant groups. The effect of θ HD-tACS on the ACC differed between IF- and EF-dominant groups, and θ HD-tACS in the IF-dominant group decreased the performance of standing postural control under the EF condition. The forced activation of the ACC with θ HD-tACS may have conversely reduced the activity of brain regions normally activated by the IF-dominant group. Additionally, the activation of ACC prioritized visual information processing and suppressed the superficial sensory processing that is normally potentially prioritized by the IF-dominant group. These results highlight the importance of changing the type of rehabilitation and sports training tasks to account for the individual's dominance of attention focus.

The Effect of Attentional Focus on Real-Time Conscious Motor Processing During Tandem Walking in Young Adults

The theory of reinvestment in experimental psychology suggested that automated performance could be degraded if attention was internally diverted to the process of skill execution. This study examined the role of attentional focus instructions on real-time conscious motor processing (i.e., reinvestment) during tandem walking. Thirty-six young adults (mean age = 20.94, SD = 1.43 years) participated; their electroencephalography T3–Fz coherence (i.e., real-time reinvestment) was measured during three walking conditions with different attentional focus instructions: external focus, internal focus, and control conditions. The results suggested that attentional focus instructions did not significantly affect real-time conscious motor processing during tandem walking in young adults, possibly due to the low level of motor task complexity of walking by young adults. The Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale appears to be not sensitive enough to reflect the real-time reinvestment during gait-related movements in young adults.

Is cognitive control of perception and action via attentional focus moderated by motor imagery?

Motor imagery (MI) has emerged as an individual factor that may modulate the effects of attentional focus on motor skill performance. In this study, we investigated whether global MI, as well as its components (i.e., kinesthetic MI, internal visual MI, and external visual MI) moderate the effect of attentional focus on performance in a group of ninety-two young adult novice air-pistol shooters (age: M = 21.87, SD = 2.54). After completing the movement imagery questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3), participants were asked to complete a pistol shooting experiment in three different attentional focus conditions: (1) No focus instruction condition (control condition with no verbal instruction) (2) an internal focus instruction condition, and (3) an external focus condition. Shot accuracy, performance time, and aiming trace speed (i.e., stability of hold or weapon stability) were measured as the performance variables. Results revealed that shot accuracy was significantly poorer during internal relative to control focus condition. In addition, performance time was significantly higher during external relative to both control and internal condition. However, neither global MI, nor its subscales, moderated the effects of attentional focus on performance. This study supports the importance of attentional focus for perceptual and motor performance, yet global MI and its modalities/perspectives did not moderate pistol shooting performance. This study suggests that perception and action are cognitively controlled by attentional mechanisms, but not motor imagery. Future research with complementary assessment modalities is warranted to extend the present findings.

External and internal focus of attention differentially modulate corticospinal excitability in anticipatory postural adjustments

Whether attentional focus modulates the corticospinal excitability of the lower limb muscles in anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) when performing a ballistic movement of the upper limb remains unclear. The present study used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to examine the corticospinal excitability of the lower limb muscles along with the kinematic profiles during dart throwing with different attentional foci, external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF). In 13 healthy participants, TMS was applied immediately before electromyographic onset of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle, and the motor evoked potential (MEP) was recorded in the TA and soleus (SOL) muscles. The performance accuracy was significantly higher in the EF condition than in the IF condition. In both EF and IF conditions, MEP amplitude in the TA muscle, but not the SOL muscle, was significantly higher immediately before TA muscle onset (− 100, − 50, and 0 ms) compared to the control. In particular, the MEP increment in the TA muscle before TA muscle onset (− 50 and 0 ms) was significantly larger in the EF condition than in the IF condition. Our findings provide the first evidence for the modulation of corticospinal excitability in APA by changing attentional focus.

The effect of attentional focus instructions on performance and technique in a complex open skill

ABSTRACT External focus of attention has been shown to promote more automatic motor control, yielding better performance and more efficient technique, than an internal focus. However, most research has used closed-skill tasks in novices. The extent to which the reported pattern of findings generalises to more complex, time-constrained tasks requires further investigation. In this study, we investigated the effect of attentional focus instructions on performance and technique in an open-skill task in skilled performers. Thirteen skilled cricket batters batted from a ball projector in four conditions, receiving instructions to focus on the movement of their hands (internal focus), the movement of their bat (proximal external focus), the flight of the ball (distal external focus), or no instruction (control). Performance and technique were measured by quality of bat-ball contacts and step length/knee flexion, respectively, whilst playing straight drives. Compared to external focus and control conditions, focusing internally yielded significantly worse batting performance and shorter step lengths, with the largest effects observed between internal and distal external focus conditions. Quality of bat-ball contact data suggested that participants’ ability to protect the wicket (as evidenced by more miss/edge shots) was more negatively affected by focusing internally than their ability to play shots to score runs (as evidenced by fewer good bat-ball contacts). Findings suggest that, for skilled performance of open-skill tasks, a distal external focus yields more effective performance and technique compared with focusing internally. Findings highlight the need for further research on attentional focus effects between different skills within specific sports. Highlights A distal external focus of attention enhances performance and technique of skilled cricket batters compared with an internal focus. Providing skilled batters with no instructions yields similar performance benefits to distal external focus instructions. Focusing internally differentially negatively affects skilled cricket batters depending on the strategic intention of the shot being played (e.g. protecting the wicket vs attempting to score runs).