External Focus Condition Research Articles

Stimulation Techniques used to Assess Corticospinal Excitability Alters an Attentional Focus Maximal Voluntary Contraction of the Elbow Flexors.

PURPOSE: To investigate the role of attentional focus on force output by assessing 1) force output during maximal voluntary elbow flexion contractions, 2) corticospinal excitability and 3) motor unit activation patterns METHODS: 7 resistance-trained males completed two experimental sessions. Each session consisted of 12 maximum voluntary contractions (MVC) with 180s rest of recovery between MVC. Participants were given counter-balanced external and internal attentional focus conditions prior to each MVC to direct attention. Force output and electromyography (EMG) of the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, and brachioradialis were recorded for both sessions. Transcranial magnetic stimulation, transmastoid electrical stimulation, and brachial plexus electrical stimulation were used to produce motor evoked potentials (MEPs), cervicomedullary motor evoked potentials (CMEPs) and maximal M-waves (Mmax) in the biceps brachii during each MVC in one of the two sessions. All MEPs and CMEPs were normalized to Mmax. RESULTS: Forces produced during the stimulation session were not significantly different between external and internal focus conditions (p = 0.20). However, forces produced during the non-stimulation session were 19.9% higher with an external cue compared to internal cues (p < 0.05). As well, forces produced with external cues were 13.2% greater during the non-stimulation session compared to the stimulation session. (p<0.05). EMG activity was not found to be significantly different between attention focus cues (p≥0.1). CONCLUSIONS: The usage of stimulation techniques likely distracted participants from the attentional focus cues provided during the stimulation session. Therefore, we were unable to successfully assess changes in corticospinal excitability between focus cues. However, we were still able to show that external cues direct greater force production of the elbow flexors compared to internal cues.

The Effects of Attentional Focus Instructions and Task Difficulty in a Paced Fine Motor Skill

An external focus of attention is considered superior to an internal focus for learning and performance. However, findings specific to changing the task difficulty are inconsistent. The present study used a reciprocal aiming task to determine the effects of attentional focus on motor performance using speed-accuracy paradigm. We constrained timing to examine how internal and external focus of attention influenced accuracy when task difficulty changes. The results indicated greater accuracy on the right target and greater consistency on both targets for the external focus condition, regardless of task difficulty. Our results uniquely demonstrated how instruction modified a speed-accuracy task.

Absence of Ankle Stiffening While Standing in Focus and Cognitive Task Conditions in Older Adults

Research suggests that an external focus or cognitive task may improve postural control. Removing attention from movement production may promote automaticity, or the tasks may promote ankle stiffening. To investigate these two theories, twenty older adults stood while performing baseline standing, internal focus, external focus, and two cognitive tasks. Changes in postural control occurred in external focus and cognitive task conditions compared to baseline and internal focus, while no change occurred in cocontraction indices. This suggests that an external focus and cognitive task can improve postural control in older adults. Since no change occurred in cocontraction indices across conditions, this suggests that stiffening cannot explain these changes. Instead, changes could be due to automaticity of sway.

External focus of attention concurrently elicits optimal performance of suprapostural pole-holding task and postural stability in children with developmental coordination disorder

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of different attentional focus conditions (external focus (EF) vs. internal focus (IF) vs. no focus (NF)) on the performance of a pole-holding task and postural stability in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and typically developing children (TDC), while addressing previous study limitations. A total of 186 participants were enrolled in the analysis comprising 91 children with DCD (28 in the EF, 32 in the IF, and 31 in the NF condition) and 95 TDC (31 in the EF, 33 in the IF, and 31 in the NF condition). Participants were required to hold a pole with their hands still and parallel to the floor while focusing on pole movement (EF), focusing on hands (IF), or without focus instructions (NF), while pole movements and postural sway were recorded. Results showed that pole movements were significantly smaller during the EF condition (p < 0.05) compared with IF and NF conditions for both the DCD and TDC groups. In addition, postural sway was significantly lower during the EF condition compared with IF and NF conditions (p < 0.05). This study verified that the EF condition can not only facilitate better performance in holding a pole horizontal and immobile, but also concurrently promote greater postural stability than both IF and NF conditions for children with DCD and TDC.

External relative to internal attentional focus enhances motor performance and learning in visually impaired individuals

Background: Research has demonstrated the advantages of an external relative to internal focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning across diverse tasks, contexts and populations. However, research has yet to examine whether this finding holds true for individuals who have a major visual impairment in discrete and locomotion-based continuous motor tasks.Methods: In experiment 1, twenty-four visually impaired participants were asked to kick a soccer ball with their dominant foot to a target 7 meters away. Participants performed 10 trials within an internal focus (concentration on inside of the foot), external focus (concentration on the ball), and control (no focus instructions) conditions, in a counterbalanced order. In experiment 2, thirty-nine visually impaired adults were asked to ride a rehabilitation Pedalo for a distance of 7 meters. Participants were randomly assigned to either an internal focus (focus on the feet), external focus (focus on the platform), or control (no focus instructions) group. Retention and transfer tests were conducted on day 2.Results: An external focus resulted in more accurate kicks and faster pedalo movement times compared to an internal focus.Conclusions: These findings indicate that visual information does not mediate external focus benefits for motor performance and learning.Implications for RehabilitationPractitioners should use instructions that encourage visually impaired individuals who are going through rehabilitation to adopt an appropriate focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning of discrete or locomotion-based motor skills.Instructions that foster an external focus, relative to an internal focus, enhances performance of both discrete and continuous motor skills in individuals with visual impairment.

Postural Control Entropy Is Increased When Adopting an External Focus of Attention.

Falls in older adults are a public health challenge due to their influence on well-being and health-care costs. One way to address this challenge is to discover new methods to enhance postural control in older adults so they are better prepared to maintain an upright stance. Older and younger adults (N = 32) performed a static balance task on a force plate with no instructions, internal focus instructions, or external focus instructions. Center of pressure displacement time series were analyzed using sample entropy and standard deviation. Only the external focus condition significantly increased postural control entropy, which was observed across both age groups. This study showed that an external focus of attention can be used to increase postural control entropy within a single session of testing.

The Effect of Attentional Focus Conditions on Performer’s EMG Activity

Many researchers have been investigated the effect of focusing type on motor performance and muscular activity. Studies have showed that focusing on movement effects, i.e., an external focus enhances motor performance whereas, reduces muscular activity compare to focusing on body movements, i.e., an internal focus. The purpose of present study was to determine whether focusing externally had any effect on reduction of Electromyographic activity of performers. In this study, 16 participants were asked to perform weight lifting under control (no instructions are given), external (focusing on dumbbell) and internal (focusing on biceps brachii muscle) conditions. The EMG data were acquired via DELSYS EMG System and monitored on LabVIEW. RMSE values were calculated to compare the EMG activities under each conditions. The results showed that the EMG activity was significantly reduced under external focus condition.

Thinking about your running movement makes you less efficient: attentional focus effects on running economy and kinematics

ABSTRACTA number of studies have shown that attentional focus instructions can effect running economy. This study assessed spiroergometry, as well as running kinematics as a possible mechanism to explain these effects. Twelve runners had to focus their attention on either their running movement, their breathing or on a video while running on a treadmill at a set, submaximum speed. Spiroergometry and running kinematics were measured. Results revealed worse running economy in both internal focus conditions (breathing and movement) compared to the external focus condition (video), replicating previous findings. In addition, vertical oscillation during the running movement was elevated in the movement compared to the video condition, indicating a less efficient running style. No changes in kinematics were found for the breathing compared to the video condition. Therefore, consciously focusing on the running movement moves runners away from their optimised running pattern and leads to detriments in economy. The decreases in running economy in the breathing condition can be better explained by changes in breathing patterns.

Adopting an External Focus of Attention Enhances Musical Performance

Two experiments are reported in which skilled musicians playing different instruments performed a piece of their choice under various attentional focus conditions. In the external focus condition, they were asked to focus on playing for the audience and the expressive sound of the music. In the internal focus condition, they were asked to focus on the precision of their finger movements (or lip movements for singers) and correct notes. In the control condition, they were asked to play the way they normally did. Expert raters evaluated the musicians’ performances for both musical expression and technical precision. In Experiment 1, external focus instructions enhanced musical expression relative to both internal focus and control conditions. There was no effect on technical precision. In Experiment 2, raters were given more detailed evaluation criteria. An external focus again led to superior musical expression compared with internal focus and control conditions. In addition, technical precision was higher within the external relative to the internal focus condition. The findings show that the advantages of focusing on the intended movement effect (i.e., externally) generalize to experienced musicians. Music teachers could offer their students specific recommendations for focus of attention during training and in concert situations to optimize learning and performance.

Are internal focuses really useful?

To evaluate the external vs. internal focus during free basketball shots in non-basketball players. For this analysis 49 subjects participated in one baseline and one experimental session. During the baseline session all the participants performed 20 free basketball shots without instructions (Non-Instructions). During the experimental session participants were randomly allocated to one group: Dominant-Group, which performed the free basketball shots with the dominant hand; or a Non-dominant Group, which performed the shots with the non-dominant hand. Both groups performed 20 throws under internal and external focus of attention conditions. In the Dominant-Group internal focus of attention resulted in a higher number of successful shots compared with the external focus condition. Our study does not support previous findings and shows that external focus of attention impairs the performance of free basketball shots with the dominant hand in comparison with internal focus and ¨no instructions¨ conditions, in non-basketball players.

The Influence of External Focus Instruction Characteristics on Children’s Motor Performance

ABSTRACTPurpose: Research has demonstrated that verbal instructions directing attention externally (i.e., toward the effect of the movement) significantly enhance motor skill performance, and this effect is enhanced when the distance of the external focus relative to the body is increased. However, few studies have investigated this distance-of-focus effect in children. The present study aimed to examine the effect of increasing the distance of an external focus on children’s motor performance in 2 experiments. Method: In Experiment 1, children performed standing long jumps under 3 instructional conditions (control, internal attentional focus, and external attentional focus). In Experiment 2, children performed standing long jumps under 4 instructional conditions (control, internal, proximal external attentional focus, and distal external attentional focus). Results: In Experiment 1, results revealed a statistically significant jump distance advantage for the external focus condition. In Experiment 2, a statistically significant jump distance advantage for the distal external focus condition was found. However, instructional and task characteristics beyond distance of focus may have been influential. Conclusions: External focus instructions benefit children’s jump performance, but specifically when they are supported by a concrete movement goal reflecting relevant performance criteria. These findings highlight the importance of examining the content of instructions and relevant task characteristics provided to children beyond attentional focus to consider their motivational characteristics.

Individual Differences Influencing Immediate Effects of Internal and External Focus Instructions on Children’s Motor Performance

ABSTRACTPurpose: A large pool of evidence supports the beneficial effect of an external focus of attention on motor skill performance in adults. In children, this effect has been studied less and results are inconclusive. Importantly, individual differences are often not taken into account. We investigated the role of working memory, conscious motor control, and task-specific focus preferences on performance with an internal and external focus of attention in children. Methods: Twenty-five children practiced a golf putting task in both an internal focus condition and external focus condition. Performance was defined as the average distance toward the hole in 3 blocks of 10 trials. Task-specific focus preference was determined by asking how much effort it took to apply the instruction in each condition. In addition, working memory capacity and conscious motor control were assessed. Results: Children improved performance in both the internal focus condition and external focus condition (ŋp2 = .47), with no difference between conditions (ŋp2 = .01). Task-specific focus preference was the only factor moderately related to the difference between performance with an internal focus and performance with an external focus (r = .56), indicating better performance for the preferred instruction in Block 3. Conclusion: Children can benefit from instruction with both an internal and external focus of attention to improve short-term motor performance. Individual, task-specific focus preference influenced the effect of the instructions, with children performing better with their preferred focus. The results highlight that individual differences are a key factor in the effectiveness in children’s motor performance. The precise mechanisms underpinning this effect warrant further research.

The effects of attentional focus in the preparation and execution of a standing long jump.

Attentional focus research suggests an external focus leads to improved motor performance compared to an internal focus (Wulf in Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 6:77-104, 2013), but skilled athletes often report using an internal focus (Fairbrother et al., Front Psychol 7:1028, 2016) and sometimes shifting between different foci in the preparation and execution phases of performance (Bernier et al. in J Appl Sport Psychol 23:326-341, 2011; Bernier et al. in Sport Psychol 30:256-266, 2016). To date, focus shifts have been unexplored in experimental research, thus the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of shifting focus between the preparation and execution phases of a standing long jump. Participants (N = 29) completed two jumps in a control condition (CON), followed by two jumps in four experimental conditions presented in a counterbalanced order. Conditions included using an external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF) in both preparation and execution of the skill, as well as shifting from an internal focus in preparation to an external focus in execution (ITE), and an external focus in preparation to an internal focus in execution (ETI). Jump distance was analyzed with a repeated measures ANOVA. The main effect of condition was significant, p < .001, with EF producing longer jumps than all other conditions (p's < 0.05). ITE also generated farther jumps than IF and CON (p's < 0.05). The superiority of the EF and ITE conditions suggests that the focus employed in execution has the strongest impact on performance. Additionally, if an internal focus must be used in preparation, the performance decrement can be ameliorated by shifting to an external focus during execution.

Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning.

In the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning [Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23, 1382-1414], 3 factors are postulated to facilitate learning: enhanced expectancies (EE) for performance, autonomy support (AS), and an external focus (EF) of attention. In 3 recent studies, combinations of 2 of these variables resulted in superior learning relative to the presence of only 1 variable, or none. We examined whether the combination of all 3 factors would enhance learning relative to combinations of 2 factors. Our design included EE-AS, EE-EF, AS-EF, and AS-EE-EF groups. Participants threw balls at a target with their non-dominant arm. In the EE conditions, they received positive social-comparative feedback. In the AS conditions, they were allowed to throw with their dominant arm on trial blocks chosen by them. In the EF conditions, participants were asked to focus on the target. On a delayed retention test, the AS-EE-EF group outperformed all other groups. The findings provide evidence that enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and an external focus can contribute in an additive fashion to optimize motor learning.

Cognitive Load and Dual-Task Performance in Dart-Throwing

Only a few research studies using reaction time measures have clearly shown that an external focus of attention requires fewer attentional resources than an internal focus of attention (FOA). The present experiments used dual-task techniques with accuracy-based measures to determine the relation between the direction of the FOA (external/internal) and cognitive load by having participants perform a tone estimation task and dart throwing in isolation and concurrently. In Experiment 1 with a between-subjects design there was a tendency for spatial errors in dart throwing to be reduced in the dual task condition when focus was dir2ected externally, as opposed to internally. In Experiment 2 with a within-subject design both the internal and external focus conditions showed reduced errors in the dual-task conditions compared to the single-task conditions. The correlations between the actual and estimated tones were strong and positive in both experiments (at least .90). These results suggest that accuracy in d...

External Versus Two Different Internal Foci of Attention in Long-Distance Throwing.

The present study examined the influence of attentional focus on performance during a long-distance throwing task. Twelve participants executed three maximum-effort, long-distance baseball throwing attempts in three focus conditions: internal focus on wrist flexion (wrist internal focus), internal focus on the separation between pelvis and upper torso orientations (torso internal focus), and external focus on the ball path (external focus). Compared with the external focus and torso internal focus conditions, performance was poorer in the wrist internal focus condition. Performances were not different in the torso internal and external focus conditions. In addition, attentional focus affected the release angle of the ball but not its initial velocity. Our results reveal that the body part targeted for internal focus of attention and the forcefulness of the motor activity can be as important to motor performance as whether the attention is internal or external.

Randomized Trial on the Effects of Attentional Focus on Motor Training of the Upper Extremity Using Robotics With Individuals After Chronic Stroke

ObjectiveTo compare the long-term effects of external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF) of attention after 4 weeks of arm training. DesignRandomized, repeated-measures, mixed analysis of variance. SettingOutpatient clinic. ParticipantsIndividuals with stroke and moderate-to-severe arm impairment living in the community (N=33; withdrawals: n=3). InterventionsFour-week arm training protocol on a robotic device (12 sessions). Main Outcome MeasuresJoint independence, Fugl-Meyer Assessment, and Wolf Motor Function Test measured at baseline, discharge, and 4-week follow-up. ResultsThere were no between-group effects for attentional focus. Participants in both groups improved significantly on all outcome measures from baseline to discharge and maintained those changes at 4-week follow-up regardless of group assignment (joint independence EF condition: F1.6,45.4=17.74; P<.0005; partial η2=.39; joint independence IF condition: F2,56=18.66; P<.0005; partial η2=.40; Fugl-Meyer Assessment: F2,56=27.83; P<.0005; partial η2=.50; Wolf Motor Function Test: F2,56=14.05; P<.0005; partial η2=.35). ConclusionsThere were no differences in retention of motor skills between EF and IF participants 4 weeks after arm training, suggesting that individuals with moderate-to-severe arm impairment may not experience the advantages of an EF found in healthy individuals. Attentional focus is most likely not an active ingredient for retention of trained motor skills for individuals with moderate-to-severe arm impairment, whereas dosage and intensity of practice appear to be pivotal. Future studies should investigate the long-term effects of attentional focus for individuals with mild arm impairment.

External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the combined effects of external focus instructions and autonomy support on motor performance of children. In addition, we sought to provide evidence for an increased focus on the task goal under the external focus condition by using an inattentional blindness manipulation. DesignWithin-participant design. MethodThirty-six children (mean age = 8.5 ± 1.3 years) were asked to perform a bowling task with their dominant hand. Each participant performed 8 trials under external focus (path of the ball), internal focus (hand), or control conditions. In each attentional focus condition, they performed half of the trials under a choice (autonomy support) condition, in which they were able to choose among 4 bowling balls, and a no-choice condition (white ball). ResultsThe external focus instruction resulted in greater bowling accuracy (i.e., more pins knocked down) than internal focus and no instructions (control). Furthermore, choice resulted in more effective performance than no choice. Thus, both factors had additive benefits for performance. There was some evidence for an increased task focus in the external condition. ConclusionsThe present results show that, within the same individuals, instructions to adopt an external focus and the provision of a small choice contributed independently to enhance motor performance in children.

The effect of attentional focus cues on object control performance in elementary children

ABSTRACTBackground and purpose: Attentional focus cues have been shown to impact motor performance of adults and children. Specifically, an external focus of attention results in improved motor learning and performance as compared to adopting an internal focus of attention. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an internal and external attentional focus cue on children’s object control skill performance during a commonly used motor skill assessment.Methods: Using a within-participant design, a total of 44 children (Mage = 7.7 years, 20 boys and 24 girls) completed all three attentional focus conditions. The object control subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2; Ulrich, 2000. Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Austin: Pro-Ed.) served as the motor skill assessment in present study. The TGMD-2 is a normed and criteria-referenced assessment frequently used to assess fundamental motor skill competence in children. The object control subtest of the TGMD-2 assesses a child’s ability to complete six fundamental motor skills – striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand throw, and underhand roll. All participants completed the object control subtest of the TGMD-2 under three different attentional focus conditions: baseline (i.e. neutral focus), internal, and external. The internal cue focused on movement performance and the external cue focused on movement outcome. In all three conditions, a video demonstration of proper skill performance was used to ensure no difference in visual demonstration, but the overlaying audio was changed to encompass each attentional focus condition. Children’s motor performance was recorded and later coded by a single researcher blinded to the study. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to determine if children’s motor scores changed among the three conditions.Results: Findings demonstrated that children’s performance differed among the three conditions (F(2,43) = 3.5, p < .05). Post hoc analysis revealed that children scored significantly better in the external cue condition compared to the baseline (difference = 1.98, p < .05). No other significant differences were present.Conclusion: Children performed better when given a verbal instruction to focus their attention externally rather than a verbal instruction with no attentional focus cue. No significant differences exist between the internal and external focus condition or between the neutral and internal condition. Our findings align with the literature and support that external attentional focus cues have a positive effect on motor performance. From a teaching and learning standpoint, using consistent instructions appears to be essential for young learners. Slight changes in verbal cues can have a significant effect on how well children execute fundamental motor skills.

The effects of attentional focus and cognitive tasks on postural sway may be the result of automaticity

Research reveals improvements in postural control when focus is placed on movement effects rather than movement production, and further improvements during the performance of a concurrent cognitive task. It has yet to be determined if these changes are due to the use of an ankle stiffening strategy or to the use of more automatic postural control processes. The objectives of the present study were to replicate the effect of attentional focus and cognitive tasks on postural control and to test that no change occurs in lower leg muscle activity in these conditions. Twenty five healthy young adults (20.7±2.76years, 10 male) were asked to stand still while performing various tasks: baseline standing, internally focusing on minimizing movement of the ankles, externally focusing on minimizing movement of an apparatus placed on their ankle joint, and two cognitive tasks consisting of counting and simultaneously summing one or two single digits in a series of three-digit numbers. Compared to baseline and internal focus, sway decreased in external focus conditions and decreased further in cognitive task conditions. Furthermore, sway velocity increased in cognitive task conditions and sway frequency increased in the medial-lateral direction in the more difficult cognitive task. Finally, no effect of condition was found on muscle activity around the ankle joint. Collectively, the findings lend support to the hypothesis that changes in postural control were the result of an automatic type of postural control rather than due to stiffening occurring at the ankle joint.