External Exchange Research Articles

Modified zeolite as a sorbent for removal of contaminants from wet flue gas desulphurization wastewater

The aim of the present work was to prepare and investigate the sorption efficiency of unwashed cationic surfactant-modified natural zeolite (Cp) for the simultaneous removal of selected inorganic compounds (NH4+, SO42−, NO3−, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Ni) from wet flue gas desulphurization (WFGD) wastewater. The Cp was modified using hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HDTMA-Br) salt in an amount not exceeding its external cation exchange capacity (1.0 ECEC). The present analysis showed that the modification process was completed by forming an incomplete monolayer by the uptaken HDTMA ions. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and textural analysis indicated that the adsorbed HDTMA ions formed a disordered, macroporous structure onto Cp surface. Batch adsorption experiments with different sorbent dosages revealed an increase in the sorption efficiency of NH4+ and NO3− with the increase in the amount of modified Cp. The highest removal efficiency was observed at adsorbent dosage of 150 g/L. The studies also revealed, that the SO42− removal did not change significantly regardless the sorbent dosage. The kinetic tests showed that a substantial amount of inorganic compounds was removed within 2 h, and the sorption kinetics of each compound were best fitted to the pseudo-second order model. The studies of adsorption mechanism revealed that cation exchange, anion exchange with Br− counterion, electrostatic interaction between the surfactant and inorganic ions, as well as precipitation of insoluble salts might be involved simultaneously in the immobilization of NH4+, SO42−, NO3−, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Ni.

External and internal exchange rates and the Dutch disease: Evidence from a panel of oil-exporting African countries

Despite an increasing number of empirical studies on the Dutch disease in developing countries and the evidence that oil revenues tend to appreciate the real exchange rate, there are very few existing discussions about the definition of real exchange rates. This article intends to fill this gap by using different proxies of the real exchange rate and differentiating the internal and external real exchange rates for the agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Using Pooled-Mean-Group and Mean-Group estimates on a panel of nine African net oil-exporting countries, results show a clear appreciation of the exchange rates generated by an increase in oil revenues or international oil prices, except for the internal real exchange rate for manufacturing goods. This could imply that, in these African countries, oil revenues affect the competitiveness of agricultural sectors more clearly than the manufacturing ones. This article also tests potential cross-section dependence by implementing a Cross-sectionally augmented version of the Pooled-Mean-Group, which overall supports the previous results.

Optical manifestation of magnetic polarons bound to excitons and resident holes in a (Cd,Mn)Te quantum well

Photoluminescence and multiple ${\mathrm{Mn}}^{2+}$ spin-flip Raman scattering (SFRS) are studied in the (Cd,Mn)Te/(Cd,Mg)Te quantum well with excess resident hole concentration under resonance continuous-wave photoexcitation in the localized states of excitons and trions at $T=1.5$ K. A magnetic polaron shift of both exciton and trion photoluminescence is observed to be increasing with an increase in the magnetic field up to 6 T applied perpendicularly to the sample growth axis (Voigt geometry). Exciton magnetic polaron shift in magnetic field is attributed to the adiabatic energy transfer from the exchange reservoir to the Zeeman reservoir during the precession of the ${\mathrm{Mn}}^{2+}$ ions in the summary field of external magnetic and exchange hole fields. A mechanism of the magnetic polaron shift of trion photoluminescence is suggested. It is related to direct photoexcitation of the triplet trion state, which is stable in the conditions which are provided by the resident hole magnetic polarons. In these conditions, the ${\mathrm{Mn}}^{2+}$ magnetic moment experiences additional magnetization in the double exchange field provided by two holes in the triplet trion state. It is observed that the maximum efficiency of multiple ${\mathrm{Mn}}^{2+}$ spin-flip Raman scattering falls into the energy range corresponding to the states of localized excitons where the exciton magnetic polaron shift is observed. From this we conclude that the magnetic polaron state could be an intermediate state of the multiple ${\mathrm{Mn}}^{2+}$ SFRS process.

Environmental orientation, external environmental information exchange and environmental performance: Examining mediation and moderation effects

Previous research presents mixed findings about the impact of environmental orientation (EO) on environmental performance (EP). Using the theoretical lens of resource orchestration theory (ROT) and contingency theory (CT), this study explores the relationships between EO, external environmental information exchange (EEIE) (with suppliers and customers), and EP. In particular, this study investigates the mediating role of EEIE between EO and EP, and the moderating effect of EO on the relationship between EEIE and EP. The proposed relationships were analysed through structural equation modelling and hierarchical linear regression analysis using survey data collected in Australia. The results reveal the partial mediating effect of EEIE on the EO-EP link, and the contingency effect of EO on the relationship between EEIE (with customers) and EP. Our study extends the boundaries of the current understanding by empirically testing both mediation and moderation within the same study, thereby presenting insights into how EO can positively influence EP, and under what circumstances. These findings provide managers with useful guidance on how EO can be complemented by external information sharing for environmental solutions.

Determinants of Campital Flight and its Impact on Economic Performance: A Study of Developming Economies

Capital flight imposes a great danger to the developing economies by lowering their economic activity, devaluing the currency, and hindering economic growth. This paper contributes to the literature by investigating the determinants of capital flight of developing economies. Determinants are studied as indices, and these indices are calculated by using the Arithmetic Mean approach. There is a two-steps model; in the first part, determinants are discussed, and in the second part, capital flight is used as an independent variable, and its impact on economic performance is measured in 59 Developing Economies. GMM (Generalized Method of Moments) is used for the determinants of capital flight, and panel GLS (Generalized least square) is used to check the impact of capital flight on economic performance. Macroeconomic variables (external debt, inflation, exports, interest rate, and exchange rate) are also part of the study with four indices as determinants (Country Risk Index, Economic Freedom Index, financial inclusion index, and Governance institution and corruption index). Results suggest that all included indices were significant along with all macroeconomic variables. Country risk, external debt, and exports have a negative coefficient, while others have a positive coefficient value. Capital investment, foreign direct investment, and Gross domestic product were used as proxies of economic performance. Results of GLS have shown there is a significant and negative impact of capital flight on economic performance. Capital flight is measured by using the residual methodology.

Morphology identification and description of coffee plants (Coffea sp) in Karo District

Coffee is individual of the other plantation supplies that has a great commercial worth amid other estate harvests and plays a significant role as a basis of external exchange. This research aims to identify and determine the morphological characters of coffee plants (Coffea sp) in the three Sub-Districts Merek, Naman Teran, and Simpang Empat, Districts of Tanah Karo, North Sumatera, Indonesia. The research was conducted in 2019 which consisted of 27 plant samples. This research is an exploratory research which is conducted by survey and the sample is taken by using accidental sampling method. Observation of coffee morphological characters based on the IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) descriptor manual. The results showed that 27 coffee accessions found in each location had a relatively close similarity distance with the farthest kinship value of 8.813 found in the K26 and K8 accessions.

External Debt and Exchange Rate Fluctuations in Iran: Markov Switching Approach

When net External assets change, the money supply of a country and also the central bank’s debt will change. Exchange rate is much more important in countries like Iran, because a great portion of government’s revenue comes from the External exchange of natural resources. So, exchange rate directly influences the government’s financial situation, revenues, and costs. As External debt is one of the main financing resources of budget deficit, thus how it will be spent can positively or negatively affect the exchange rate fluctuations. This research tried to study the effect of External debt on exchange rate by using monetary approach to exchange rate, and to that end used time series data for 1981–2017 period. In addition, due to the nonlinear relationship between the variables based on the LR and BDS test, nonlinear models were used to estimate. The results show that External debt and money supply have positive and significant effect on exchange rate. So, monetary policy can derivate the exchange rate from its long-run trend. In contrast, the difference between domestic and external production has a negative and significant effect on the exchange rate.

Systems of Genetic Resources Exchange in Côte D’Ivoire and its Evolution: Case Study of Food Crops Such as Yam, Cassava, Rice and Plantain

Aims: Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) flow in research and development area inside and outside many countries are not indexed or listed and are insufficiently documented. In Côte d’Ivoire, when implementing the Multilateral System (MLS) project, a survey was realized with different actors as well at national as international levels to collect data dealing with exchanges flow characteristics of main food crops as yam, cassava, rice and plantain. The objectives of the current study are i) to know about internal and external exchange flow of genetic resources of yam, cassava, rice and plantain in Côte d’Ivoire, ii) to assess Côte d’Ivoire dependence regarding external PGRFA, iii) to indentify international research agreements or research network facilitating Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) in Côte d’Ivoire and iv) to determine constraints or opportunities related to access to external PGR in the future.
 Study Design: A questionnaire was submitted to actors managing main consumed food crops in Côte d’Ivoire such as yam, cassava, rice and plantain.
 Place and Duration of Study: Study was conducted in 2019 and sampled data on period starting from 2005 to 2014 about the flow of genetic resources of yam, cassava, rice and plantain inside and outside Côte d’Ivoire located in Western Africa were studied.
 Methodology: This comprised the collection of data using a questionnaire related to characteristics of PGRFA flow inside and outside Côte d’Ivoire, within institutions in charge of PGRFA. A survey was conducted with national and international actors involved in yam, cassava, rice and plantain genetic resources. Moreover, surveys on PGRFA flow data were supplemented by reports from research programs dedicated to these food crops.
 Results: Results revealed that genetic resources of yam, cassava, rice and plantain are exchanged at variable levels within different actors. Contrary to plantain, a growth of vegetal material exchange within actors was observed at national level in yam, cassava and rice. PGRFA exchange flow at international level are positively unbalanced in favor of importation from Groupe Consultatif pour la Recherche Agricole Internationale (CGIAR) creating by this way a relatively marked dependence excepted to yam where ongoing varietal breeding relies on local genetic resources. Very few or no data was given back to national research and development institutions and farmers from Côte d’Ivoire on national PGRFA sent outside for breeding purposes. In the same line, neither any law nor regulations were set up at national level to ensure traceability of plant material exchanges according to international agreements and conventions.
 Conclusion: The consequence of this inventory of fixtures about systems of genetic resources exchange and evolution in Côte d’Ivoire is the lack of regulatory mechanisms allowing populations owning traditional knowledge take profit of an access and a fair sharing of advantages arising from the use of PGRFA as yam, cassava, rice and plantain.

Hazard evaluation of indoor environment based on long-term pollutant emission characteristics of building insulation materials: An empirical study

Insulation materials are essential components in construction, and their main objective is to increase the efficiency of thermal energy by minimizing internal and external thermal exchange. Accordingly, research and development studies are being actively conducted to increase the thermal resistance of insulation materials, and high-performance insulation materials that use organic chemicals have been developed after industrialization. However, thermal insulation comprising chemicals poses a potential risk of pollutant emissions and can cause health problems. In this study, five types of insulation materials and the contaminants generated from the building materials used in insulation construction were quantitatively analyzed. In addition, an empirical study on the discharge of pollutants was conducted using a test bed, and the effects of the pollutants discharged from the insulation material on the indoor environment were examined by analyzing the pollutant concentration for 90 days. In addition, we analyzed the effect of an insulation material on an indoor environment through the standard specifications. Moreover, the necessity of legal management of the emission of contaminants from insulation materials was proposed based on the empirical research results.

INDIAN IT FIRMS CREATING MANAGEMENT CODES FOR FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK

Purpose: India has been a preferred I.T. service sourcing nation globally and has been registering high growth. India has a significant pie of the global sourcing market, accounting for nearly 55 % share. It covers significant global through its more than one thousand centres spread across continents. With a year-on-year growth of 6.1%, India’s I.T. and ITES industry will increase to the U.S. $ 350 million by 2025. The extensive expanse of geographical coverage also translates into foreign exchange risk; hence foreign exchange risk management becomes an important strategy. The current study attempts to assess the impact of foreign exchange risk management on the Indian sector over 2007-2017; the period includes the 2008 financial crisis taken up in the current study.
 Design/Methodology/ Approach: We analyzed the Indian I.T. companies listed on the BSE Ltd on their exposure, approach, and management towards foreign exchange risk. We investigated their annual reports from 2007 -2017 to understand their exposure and the adopted external foreign exchange risk management techniques. We further assessed the impact of these foreign exchange risk management techniques on the firm’s value.
 Findings: The impact of foreign exchange risk management was significant on small-cap I.T. companies for the study period. Though for the during the 2008 crisis term, it was found to be insignificant.
 Practical/Implications: Foreign exchange risk management is crucial for Indian I.T. companies indulging in cross-border trade. The current study incorporates external methods of managing foreign exchange risk management; hence even if the impact were found to be insignificant for Mid Cap and some Large-cap companies, they would be practicing internal hedging methods, which puts a strong case tapping trillion-dollar business through a fully functional competitive International Financial Centre.
 Originality/Value: Our paper contributes to the literature on Foreign exchange risk management by Indian I.T. companies, which contributes handsomely to India’s GDP and Foreign exchange reserve.
 JEL Classification Codes: F31, G32.

SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF THERMODYNAMIC INEQUALITIES

It is shown that the combined equation of the 1st and 2nd principles of classical thermodynamics does not transform into inequality in the case of irreversible processes, if the external energy exchange of the system is expressed in terms of energy carrier flows. This means that thermodynamic inequalities are generated by attempts to take into account the irreversibility of real (non-static) processes, without taking into account explicitly its reasons - the inhomogeneity of the system and the presence of internal sources not only for entropy, but also for other parameters.On this basis, exact expressions of heat and work in open nonequilibrium systems, as well as their dissipative function, are obtained. The physical meaning of entropy as a thermal impulse and the unprovability of the principle of its increase in the framework of equilibrium systems are revealed. Non-entropy criteria for evolution are proposed and the latter is shown to be incompatible not only with the second law of thermodynamics, but also with the laws of conservation of energy carriers. The elimination of thermodynamic inequalities opens up the possibility of applying the equations of thermodynamics, taking into account energy dissipation, to other fundamental disciplines.

Injection performance prediction of the upgraded neutral beam on EAST

The neutral beams(NB) on EAST are being upgraded according to the scheme that the beamline located on Port F will be moved to Port D and adjusted clockwise injection to counterclockwise injection(top view), while the beamline on Port A is unchanged with counterclockwise injection. The two beamlines are modified to counterclockwise injection consistent with the direction of plasma current (co-IP) instead of the primarily balanced-injection (co-IP and counter-IP). The two coming co-IP beamlines are expected to play important roles in plasma heating, neutron emission and current drive in EAST operating scenarios. The injection performances after the beam upgrade are predicted by the simulation codes ONETWO/NUBEAM and TRANSP/NUBEAM to model the discharges on EAST. After the beamlines are upgraded, the bulk ions are heated to a high temperature above 3.2 keV, which is much higher than that in the previous experiments. The orbit loss drops sharply by 83 % and the external charge exchange loss drops by 50 % after the beamline upgrade. The neutron rate induced by the upgraded beamline is greatly enhanced to the order of 1014/s with co-IP injection as opposed to the balanced-injection, and it is also heightened with the increases of plasma density and beam power. The simulation results show that it leads to a significant improvement of the beam-driven current and provides a practical condition for EAST to carry out long pulse and steady-state experiments. The assessment on the injection capabilities of the upgraded neutral beams is an important guiding reference to the subsequent EAST experiments.

Mathematical Simulations of Air Exchange Processes in Evacuated Tube Transport

The purpose of this research is to study theoretical aspects of the movement of a vehicle in an evacuated tube transport in conjunction with air exchange processes in a vacuum-free tube-type transport system. Tube-type transport systems with insulated internal cavities have a number of advantages over other means of delivering goods and passengers over long distances. However, for the movement of rolling stock in a pipeline (tunnel) at a high speed, it is necessary to use complex and expensive design solutions that can completely eliminate the undesirable influence of piston effects. One of such solutions is the Hyperloop-type evacuated tube transport systems. As an alternative solution, it is proposed to use a vacuum-free transport system, in which piston effects are leveled by using an external air exchange system. The study obtained theoretical results that confirm feasibility and effectiveness of the process of regulating these parameters for a vacuum-free method of reducing piston effects. The developed guidelines for the implementation of the process of regulating the parameters of the air exchange system ensure the achievement of target values of speed driving modes of the vehicle. The results of the use will improve the efficiency of train traffic control in a vacuum-free transport system, as well as replenish the base of theoretical knowledge necessary for further development of innovative transport systems.

Анализ показателей газообмена организма в высотном полете на основе статической модели респираторной системы

The purpose of the research was to analyze the dynamics of indicators of human gas exchange in high-altitude flight on the basis of a static model of the respiratory system of the body. First, we developed the structure of this model and an algorithm for calculating the gas exchange of the body. Next, we analyzed changes in indicators of the function of external respiration and gas exchange, and clarified the quantitative parameters that determine the nature of the relationships between the components of gas exchange. Finally, we carried out a computational experiment to simulate ascent to a height. The results of the analysis of the calculations showed that when a person rises to a height with a drop in pressure, tidal volumes change the volume of the alveolar space decreases and the dead space increases in the ratio from 4.7 to 0.7. An uncompensated respiratory alkalosis develops, leading to a violation of the acid-base reactions of the body.

IMPROVING APPROACHES TO ASSESSING THE COUNTRY'S FOOD SECURITY

Changes that have taken place in recent years in production, sale, market circulation, quality of food consumption give relevance to the problem of assessing the society's food security, the country's food independence and forming a high – quality food market. For this reason the purpose of the study was to justify the need for changes in the principles and rules for assessing the country's food security. It is proposed that its definition took into account the quality of food, the volume of exports and imports, the indicator of the country's comparative advantage in external exchange. During the study, the reasons for veiling the food quality and its safety were revealed, non-objectivity of determining the state of food security was substantiated, the advantages of the new approach on more objective evaluation criteria are proved and basic indicators reflecting the qualitative advantages of the new methodology in assessing food security are proposed. The problem of food quality and its assessment exists and is worsening. The novelty achieved in the study process is the rationale for the need to take into account food quality indicators of all major types, calculate food security and independence, applying for this the proposed formula for indexing the comparative advantage. In today's economy, conditions have developed when it is necessary to assess the level of food security in the society more orderly and comprehensively. To do so, the criteria laid down by international organizations must be applied. High-quality food is noted to include not only organic products, but sparing mode products as well, that is products to produce which mineral fertilizers were used in compliance with all norms and rules. Producers must preserve and protect the environment. Many authors note that government structures should pay more attention to the formation and regulation of the high quality food market segment.

Sixty Years Later: Africa’s Stalled Decolonization

The year 1960 marked the moment when the number of nominally independent African countries on the continent rose from nine to twenty-six and is a symbolic indicator of when Africa began to emerge from the days of European colonization. However, from the beginning, very few of Africa’s leaders sought to reorganize the continent’s economic structures and did virtually nothing to question its external exchange relations. Preferring to play the role of compradors, most preferred to stay wedded to their former colonial masters. Consequently, sixty years after the Year of Africa, most African countries continue to be entrenched in a set of connections that fit well with Kwame Nkrumah’s description of neocolonialism. This neocolonialism has a highly resilient material base which continues to maintain the continent in its subordinate global status and which perpetuates its underdevelopment. Sustainable growth and development in Africa continues to be blocked by the domination of external economies. African countries remain constrained from accumulating the necessary capital for auto-centric growth since the surplus is transferred overseas. Asymmetrical economic relationships are embodied by the continued supremacy of the core over Africa, something intrinsic to capitalism. Unequal exchange, the transfer of surplus i.e. the continued looting of Africa by its elites and their foreign associates, means that the dreams and aspirations of 1960, for the majority of Africans at least, have been frustrated.

Investigating External Debt and Exchange Rate Fluctuations in Nigeria: Any Difference with ARDL Model?

Abstract One of the contending issues in Nigeria in the recent time is external debt and exchange rate fluctuations. In view of the above, this study examined the relationship between external debt and exchange rate fluctuations in Nigeria over the period of 1981 to 2018. Consequently, the study employed Autoregressive Distribution Lag Model to address the objective of the study. The major findings that originated in this paper are as follows: external debt, debt service payment and foreign reserve have a significant positive impact on exchange rate fluctuations in the short run in Nigeria. Furthermore, based on these findings, recommendations are made for the policy makers that external debt as a means of financing budget deficit should be minimized if not totally discouraged in Nigeria because its servicing in particular and repayment put pressure on foreign exchange market in the short run and thereby leads to exchange rate fluctuations in terms of depreciation of naira in the country. Also, country’s foreign reserve should be strengthened through the implementation of aggressive export promotion policy in Nigeria.

Electrical magnetochiral effect and kinetic magnetoelectric effect induced by chiral exchange field in helical magnetics

The features of spin and charge transport in conductive helimagnets, which are due to the action of an inhomogeneous exchange magnetic field on the spin of conduction electrons, are theoretically studied. The interaction between the spin of moving particles and an inhomogeneous external magnetic field was first recorded in the famous Stern-Gerlach experiment that investigated the quantum nature of spin. In the present paper, we have demonstrated that two physical effects---the electrical magnetochiral effect (EMChE) and the kinetic magnetoelectric effect (KMEE)---can be explained through the interaction of the spins of itinerant electrons in chiral helimagnets with spatially inhomogeneous effective magnetic field of exchange origin. All parameters of the EMChE and KMEE are presented in terms of both the characteristic frequencies of spin relaxation of conduction electrons in a helimagnet and the frequencies of their Larmor precession in external and internal exchange fields. It has been shown that the effective frequency of conduction-electron spin relaxation in a helimagnet contains three components: (i) the rate of spin-lattice relaxation caused by spin-orbit scattering of conduction electrons by defects of the crystal lattice, (ii) the rate of change in the average spin of electrons due to their ``diffusion'' escape from a region with a given direction of the average spin to a region with a different direction of spin density, and (iii) the contribution of the Larmor precession of the spins of electrons moving in the helimagnet's exchange field that assigns the precession axis altering its direction in space. The peculiarities of the EMChE and KMEE that substantially depend on the ratio of the above-listed spin relaxation rates and the angular frequencies of electron precession are described. The numerical estimates performed show that the mechanism of generating EMChE provides the effect magnitude sufficient to be experimentally detected in metallic helimagnets. The frequency regions of spin relaxation and spin precession are determined to observe a giant electrical magnetochiral effect and resonant behavior of the chiral magnetoresistance. We have called the appropriate effect ``magnetochiral kinetic resonance'' (MChKR). The physical nature of MChKR is elucidated. The latter arises due to the coincidence of the Larmor precession frequency of an electron in the effective field and the phase change frequency of the helicoidal exchange field acting on the electron moving along the helicoid's axis with a speed equal to that of the electron flow. We have demonstrated how the experimental studies of the KMEE can be used to directly determine the chirality of helimagnets.

THE IMPACT OF EXTERNAL PUBLIC DEBT ON THE NATIONAL ECONOMY’S KEY MACROECONOMIC INDICATORS (CASE OF UKRAINE)

The paper empirically explores the impact of external public debt in Ukraine on key macroeconomic indicators such as real GDP growth, real effective exchange rate, and current account balance. The problem of increasing external debt affects not only the problems of balance of payments fluctuations but also economic security and economic growth. We have tested the hypotheses regarding the impact of Ukraine’s external public debt on these indicators in the short and long run. As an empirical tool for hypotheses testing vector autoregression models (VaR models) have been chosen. The results of constructed models show the acceleration of the external public debt growth provokes the GDP growth rate to fall with subsequent macrostabilization. The reaction of the GDP growth rate to the shock of the real effective exchange rate is more noticeable. The shock of real effective exchange rate has led to increase in external public debt with a further dampening to zero.Empirical data from the VaR model confirm that external debt has a negative impact on GDP and essentially behaves similarly to the shock of REER strengthening. Research results confirm the relationship between external public debt, real effective exchange rate, and GDP growth in Ukraine. Based on the models it was analyzed the external public debt and real effective exchange rate shocks influence the real gross domestic product growth rate. The growth of external public debt leads to the GDP growth rate fall by 1% during a year and a half with subsequent stabilization in the future. GDP growth fluctuations are explained mainly by their own fluctuations while external public debt is accounting for 2,5—8% of its fluctuations. Fluctuations in external public debt of 7—10% are explained by current account fluctuations in Ukraine. The described results of the model correspond to the concept of dependent economy.

Rethinking Middle Bronze Age Communities on Cyprus: “Egalitarian” and Isolated or Complex and Interconnected?

Current views of Cyprus during the Middle Bronze Age (or Middle Cypriot period) depict an island largely isolated from the wider eastern Mediterranean world and comprised largely if not exclusively of “egalitarian,” agropastoral communities. In this respect, its economy stands at odds with those of polities in other, nearby regions such as the Levant, or Crete in the Aegean. The publication of new excavations and new readings of legacy data necessitate modification of earlier views about Cyprus’s political economy during the Middle Bronze Age, prompting this review. We discuss at some length the island’s settlement and mortuary records, materials related to internal production, external exchange and connectivities, and the earliest of the much discussed but still enigmatic fortifications. We suggest that Middle Bronze Age communities are likely to have been significantly more complex, mobile, and interconnected than once envisaged and that the changes that mark the closing years of this period and the transition to the internationalism of Late Bronze Age Cyprus represent the culmination of an evolving series of internal developments and external interactions.