External Dynamics Research Articles

U.S. Military Training, External Support, and Security Defections during Nonviolent Resistance

Why do some armed forces remain loyal to the regime while others switch sides during nonviolent uprisings? The existing research predominantly focuses on the roles of domestic actors and dynamics in explaining security defections. We extend this line of research by exploring external factors that might potentially affect troops’ decision to defect. In particular, we suggest a combined effect of U.S. military training and external support for campaigns on defection decisions. Our findings show that substantial Western power involvement in support of campaigns might induce security defections in militaries with which the U.S. military has established ties. We further probe this relationship by disaggregating Western power support into its constituents and find that security defections are most likely to occur when a campaign is backed by both the U.S. and at least one other Western power. This study contributes to an understudied aspect of security force defections during nonviolent campaigns, highlighting how external dynamics might shape militaries’ decisions regarding loyalty and defection.

Dynamic modelling and a dual vector modulated improved model predictive control with auto tuning feature of active front‐end converters for distributed energy resources

AbstractThe operational performance of grid‐connected active front‐end converters (AFEs) faces challenges arising from the intricate interplay among phase‐locked loop (PLL) non‐linearities, grid impedance, and conventional control strategies, resulting in compromised stability. This study introduces a refined approach to dynamic model predictive control (MPC) by integrating recursive least squares (RLS) for the precise estimation of physical model parameters, thereby addressing stability concerns. Unlike conventional methodologies, the proposed enhanced RLS‐based MPC approach, equipped with an auto‐tuning feature, allows for the design of controllers without a prerequisite understanding of exact external dynamics. Notably, this technique exhibits exceptional disturbance rejection capabilities. The evaluation of the cost function at each sampling interval facilitates the determination of optimal switching states based on predicted variables. Gate pulses for the switches of the AFEs are generated accordingly. Employing a simulation platform, the proposed control structure's performance across varied conditions is comprehensively assessed, encompassing alterations in grid impedance and system non‐linearities. The method adeptly integrates inherent non‐linearities within the system, showcasing exceptional robustness in diverse dynamic scenarios. To further substantiate the efficacy of the proposed control system over conventional approaches, simulation results are validated using a laboratory hardware platform equipped with Typhoon HIL and dSPACE real‐time emulators, providing tangible evidence of the proposed control system's effectiveness in real‐world hardware setups. The multifaceted approach, encompassing precise parameter estimation, predictive control, auto‐tuning, disturbance rejection, robust design, and real‐time evaluation, collectively establishes a resilient foundation for enhancing and maintaining the overall stability of the system across diverse operating scenarios.

Advanced MPC Control Strategy for Active Front-End Converters in Distributed Energy Resources

The stability of grid-connected active front-end converters (AFEs) is often compromised by the intricate interplay between inherent converter nonlinearities and grid dynamics. This article presents a novel approach to dynamic model predictive current control (MPC) by leveraging recursive least squares (RLS) to accurately estimate the properties of a physical model. This estimation mitigates stability issues, setting the stage for improved control. Unlike conventional methods, our proposed RLS-based MPC, enriched with an auto-tuning feature, empowers controller development without the upfront need for precise external dynamics. This not only ensures high disturbance rejection but also maintains a high-fidelity control performance, rendering the approach versatile for applications where obtaining or predicting precise external dynamics is challenging. At each sampling interval, a cost function is applied to predicted variables to discern optimal switching states. Through extensive simulation studies covering diverse grid impedance changes and system nonlinearities, we evaluate the controller’s effectiveness. To underscore its superiority over traditional controls, simulation results are validated on a laboratory hardware platform equipped with Typhoon HIL and dSPACE real-time emulators, further attesting to the robustness and practical viability of our proposed approach.

Secularization, De-secularization and Re-secularization in Bangladesh: Does the ‘Third Image’ Matter?

This article analyses the trajectories of secularization, de-secularization and re-secularization in Bangladesh. It is about mapping broad historical developments with reference to basic understanding of secularization and its progress in Bangladesh. The central question in the article is: How have the trajectories of secularization, de-secularization and re-secularization in Bangladesh been influenced by the nexus of internal–external dynamics of political and social forces developed in the 1980s? The article argues that a decisive attempt to rediscover liberal and secular character of politics is currently evident in Bangladesh. The attempt to reestablish secularism in the society also faces a host of challenges, stemming from national, regional and global contexts that echo the 1980s. Methodologically, it is based on policy outlook and trend analysis.

AFP Intelligence Community’s Strategic Risk Management Process in Response to External Aggression

In the ever-changing global security landscape, characterized by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA), this study serves as a capstone project to provide valuable insights to the AFP Intelligence Community (AFPIC). Its primary focus is to effectively tackle the exceptional non-military security threats a foreign adversary poses. China’s rapid and significant ascent as an Asian hegemon and a global superpower has driven its pursuit of resources and influence worldwide. These hegemonic actions have not only elicited resentment from smaller and weaker nations adversely affected by them but also drawn the ire of the United States and its allies. The Philippines, strategically located in the South China Sea and the Pacific region, has become a prime target of China’s unconventional warfare strategy, where they seek to subdue their adversaries without resorting to kinetic force. China’s United Front Works (UFW) strategy is a crucial element of its hybrid warfare approach, providing a platform for intelligence, influence, and interference operations designed to systematically undermine its enemies. This study aims to describe the current state of the AFPIC’s risk management capabilities in terms of doctrines, organization, and training concerning the security threats posed by China’s UFW. It also seeks to identify the challenges in these areas and propose appropriate solutions to address them. Overall, the objective of this study is to contribute to the long-term endeavor of enhancing the AFPIC’s doctrines, organization, and training to effectively address the threats posed by China’s UFW and other hybrid security threats. The qualitative data gathered through document analysis, key informant interviews, and focused group discussions involving multiple participants from various units and offices within the AFPIC and the AFP Triad, as well as education and doctrine development circles, underwent an iterative and hybrid process of thematic and content analysis. Tools such as SWOT, TOWS, and the causal-impact analytical tool were utilized during this analytical process. The results of this analysis provided valuable insights into the current state of AFPIC’s risk management capability in terms of doctrine, organization, and training, highlighting both the advantages and disadvantages within these areas. Further exploration revealed the primary challenges present in these three domains, which encompassed internal and external dynamics that hindered the optimal implementation of related initiatives. Subsequently, numerous recommendations were formulated to enhance the AFPIC’s doctrine, organization, and training capabilities in response to the exceptional security threats posed by China’s united front works. Central to the research findings were three crucial factors that influenced the success or failure of the doctrinal, organizational, and training endeavors: the support of advocates and champions, the role of knowledge management, and the significance of engaging foreign stakeholders. Keywords: Armed Forces of the Philippines, Intelligence, Risk Management, United Front Works, National Security, hybrid security threats, unconventional warfare, political warfare

Strategi Usaha Mikro Pengolahan Salak dalam Meningkatkan Perekonomian Desa Wedi Kecamatan Kapas Kabupaten Bojonegoro

The research focuses on the growth of snake fruit processing micro-businesses in Wedi Village, Kapas District, Bojonegoro Regency, aiming to develop sustainable strategies for their development. The success of these enterprises hinges on a comprehensive understanding of internal and external factors. The study analyzes the pivotal factors influencing the growth of salak processing micro-enterprises. It prioritizes development strategies, particularly emphasizing the interplay between product quality (an internal factor) and market demand (an external factor). Utilizing the Analytic Network Process (ANP) method via Super Decision Software, the research assesses development factors comprehensively. The pairwise comparison analysis highlights the priority of internal and external factors in influencing the growth of snake fruit processing micro-enterprises. The findings underscore the significant impact of external factors, exceptionally high market demand, which scored 0.52276, indicating its crucial role in driving microenterprise growth. Meanwhile, product quality, though scoring lower at 0.09885, remains a strategic focus for long-term sustainability. The WT strategy, involving strategic raw material procurement and price adjustments, emerged as the most effective alternative strategy with a score of 0.35614. This underscores companies' need to optimize procurement processes and adapt pricing strategies to capitalize on market demand fluctuations. The research contributes valuable insights into the dynamics of salak processing micro-enterprises at the local level. The formulated strategy guides micro-businesses, local governments, and research institutions to foster sectoral growth. By considering both internal and external factors, the strategy aims to impact regional economic development positively and sustainably. In conclusion, the research highlights the critical role of understanding internal and external dynamics in fostering the growth of snake fruit processing micro-enterprises. The strategy prioritizes leveraging market demand while maintaining product quality for sustained growth and economic development in the region.

Unveiling the influence of institutional quality on board gender diversity and corporate environmental, social, and governance disputes in China

AbstractThis paper unravels an unprecedented interplay between board gender diversity (BGD) and corporate environmental, social, and governance (ESG) disputes among Chinese A‐share‐listed nonfinancial companies from 2017 to 2021. Framed within a knowledge‐based and sensemaking perspective of institutional frameworks, the research not only illuminates the profound impact of internal (corporate governance ratings) and external (regional institutional development) institutional factors on this intricate relationship but also brings to light a paradigm‐shifting revelation. The study employed a diverse set of empirical tests, ranging from ordinary least squares regression to advanced methods such as the generalized method of moments, two‐stage least squares, and propensity score matching, providing a nuanced and comprehensive analysis. The findings highlight the pivotal role of female directors in significantly mitigating ESG disputes. A mechanism analysis further uncovers that internal and external institutional quality are potent positive moderators in shaping the BGD–ESG dispute dynamic. This research has profound implications, providing valuable insights for stakeholders, policymakers, and scholars, offering a comprehensive understanding of how gender diversity fosters sustainability while unravelling the intricate tapestry of internal and external institutional dynamics that shape ESG outcomes.

Turizm Odaklı Stratejik Mekansal Planlama ve Bölgesel Kalkınma: TR22 Bölgesi Örneği

Spatial planning is an important tool used to decide the distribution of resources and activities at various scales and areas. Spatial planning is an important aspect focusing on physical planning in various sectors besides tourism. Although spatial planning and the tourism sector may seem like separate concepts at first glance, they are largely related. Analysis and strategic approaches in spatial planning are very important for tourism planning. For this reason, it is necessary to analyze the internal and external dynamics well (SWOT) and to bring strategic solution proposals (TOWS) for these dynamics while doing strategic spatial planning in the regional context. In order to analyze the current situation of tourism, it is necessary to consider both the upper scale (national and regional) and local scales (sub-regional, province and districts) together. This study aims to reveal the Role of SWOT and TOWS Analysis in Creating a Tourism Oriented Spatial Development Strategy / Regional Plan by determining the main problems and comprehensively analyzing the Southern Marmara Region (TR22), sub-region, province, and district scales.

Study on fracturing fluid return pattern and production characteristics of shale gas wells

We innovatively propose a research method through micro-experiment + macro-measurement, combined with onsite proppant return test. This method can solve the problem of unclear impact of the return shut-in time, return rate control and return effect on production. We carried out a specific applied research for Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, specifically determined the mineral composition, overburden pressure physical properties before and after fracturing fluid percolation, the changing law of resistance environment of gas production channel inside the reservoir before and after fracturing fluid percolation, and explored the settlement problem of proppant’s size, type and nature in the fracture through the situation of sand return. This study concludes that the reservoir testing process can be divided into pure fluid production stage, gas breakthrough stage, and stable production stage. The optimal contact time between shale and fracturing fluid promotes the hydration of clay minerals to produce microfractures and the formation of a complex network of intercommunicating seams facilitated by external dynamics, which promotes gas production. And the wrong return after fracturing will affect the hydraulic fracture conductivity.

Sustainability performance disclosure and family businesses: a perspective article

PurposeThe deeper understanding of the disclosure of external and internal dynamics of family firms necessarily places the issue of sustainability as one of the most pressing needs from both a research and managerial perspective. Therefore, this perspective article contributes to the debate of sustainability performance disclosure in family firms, proposing a research agenda.Design/methodology/approachThis study has organized the discussion around those elements that most significantly impact the propensity to disclose, with a specific focus on the interconnections and interrelations within them. The proposed research agenda is developed around three key elements: “how” firms disclose, “the reason why” they do it and “what” disclose of their performance(s).FindingsTo better understand “how” family firms should disclose their performance, it is suggested to engage in proactive stakeholder engagement to preserve long-term socioemotional wealth. “The reason why” for disclosure is still associated with the legitimization of family firms from an economic, social and environmental point of view. Finally, the “what” depends on several factors, such as the regulatory framework and the market involved.Practical implicationsThis paper contains suggestions for family firm managers, consultants and policymakers that are approaching corporate social responsibility (CSR) and non-financial reporting or sustainability disclosure overall, providing an overview of relevant factors influencing this transition process.Originality/valueThis paper suggests a logical framework to combine these three elements of the debate as strictly interrelated to foster the sustainability performance disclosure of family firms.

External Stefan and Internal Marangoni Thermo-Fluid Dynamics for Evaporating Capillary Bridges.

We probe the evaporation mechanisms of wettability-moderated, confined capillary bridges and bulges. For the first time, we explore the internal Marangoni hydrodynamics and external Stefan advection dynamics in the surrounding gaseous domain due to evaporative effects. A transient simulation approach based on the level set (LS) method and the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) framework was adopted to computationally model the capillary bridge profiles and evaporation phenomenon with generic contact line dynamics (both CCR and CCA modes). The governing equations corresponding to the transport processes in both the liquid and gaseous domains are simulated in a fully coupled manner with appropriate boundary conditions to precisely trace the liquid-vapor interface and the three-phase contact point during evaporation. The effect of the bridge confinement phenomenon, i.e., the extent of confined ambient surrounding the liquid-vapor interface between the solid surfaces, is explored. Also, the role of wetting state and contact line dynamics during CCR and CCA modes of evaporation were probed, and good agreement with experimental observations was noted. Results show that the evaporation rate is primarily dictated by the confinement phenomenon, and wettability effects play a marginal role. A higher confinement curtails the evaporation rate due to an increased local vapor concentration around the liquid bridges. However, the wetting state substantially affects the internal Marangoni effect dynamics and the Stefan advection dynamics due to its explicit influence on the nonuniform evaporative flux along the liquid-vapor interface. Between superhydrophobic confinements, the contact lines are confined in the wedge-shaped region, thereby locally augmenting the vapor concentration. As a result, the large evaporative flux near the bulge region develops a higher temperature gradient, thereby inducing upscaled thermal Marangoni flow compared to hydrophilic confinements. These findings may have significant implications for the efficient designing and development of thermofluidic systems involving thermal transport, mixing, and deposition of dissolved particles in liquid bridges.

Cyber-diplomacy: The Emergence of a Transient Field

Summary It is only in the last two decades that states have started to focus on the need to use traditional diplomatic means in discussions surrounding cyber-policy. This article explores how these discussions have been progressively ‘diplomatised’. Diplomatisation is proposed in this article as a process which involves external and internal dynamics of institutionalisation and positioning, both of which are essential for the successful creation of a new diplomatic field. Understanding the emergence of cyber-diplomacy is crucial to recognise the successes, frustrations and opportunities associated with the (lack of) regulation when it comes responsible state behaviour in this domain. This article does so based on 40 interviews conducted with diplomats and experts involved in the emergence of cyber-diplomacy. It looks at the idiosyncratic evolution of this field within specific nation states as well as overall developments at the international level, particularly within the context of the United Nations.

Lahore in the 21st Century: The functioning and development of a megacity in the global south

In the world of urban studies and history, it is not uncommon for researchers and * writers to draw from established frameworks as points of inquiry. However, in “Lahore in the 21st Century,” Qadeer presents a refreshing departure from this norm. What sets this book apart is its original analytical framework, one specifically tailored to the vibrant city of Lahore. Qadeer’s work is an exploration of the internal dynamics of urban development in Lahore, and it offers readers a unique perspective on how the city functions. At the core of Qadeer’s argument is the notion that Lahore’s social and physical development can be attributed to its internal dynamics. He uses the metaphors of software and hardware to convey this concept. He argues that the indigenous society played a pivotal role in adapting, resisting, and reshaping the initiatives brought by the external forces and dynamics. Qadeer supports his claims with examples of physical and social transformations in Lahore. Qadeer also emphasises the intricate interplay between the city’s internal dynamics and national-scale circumstances. He links Lahore’s evolution to Pakistan’s shifting political landscape and international relations. One of the book’s strengths is the author’s personal connection to the city. As someone who experienced Lahore’s transitions in the aftermath of significant outmigration by Hindu and Sikh communities in 1947, Qadeer combines his lived experiences with scholarly analysis. His memoirs are seamlessly woven into the book and meticulously corroborated with cited works. This blending of personal history and academic endeavor adds depth and authenticity to the narrative. Part of the book also serves as a historical account of Lahore. What distinguishes it from previous works is a fresh perspective on the city’s history, showing how it influences the city’s form and function. A distinctive feature of the book is Qadeer’s limited reliance on other scholars to develop an argument. While this might make it less appealing to those seeking an exhaustive review of literature on Lahore, the author’s diversity of sources is truly impressive. He offers key sources in notes, allowing interested readers to explore them independently. This approach not only keeps the book accessible but also underscores that most of the ideas presented are the author’s own, derived from his thoughtful analysis of the city.

Understanding the Impact of Exploration-Exploitation Dilemma and External Factors on Business Growth: A Case Study of PT Bank Pembangunan Daerah Jawa Barat dan Banten, Tbk (BJB) Branch in Coblong

The study examines the impact of Exploration Level, Exploitation Level, and External Factors on Business Growth at PT Bank Pembangunan Daerah Jawa Barat dan Banten, Tbk (BJB) Branch in Coblong. Through regression analysis, the results reveal significant effects of these factors on Business Growth. Exploration and Exploitation Levels exhibit substantial positive impacts, emphasizing the significance of innovation and effective utilization of existing resources. Additionally, External Factors demonstrate a robust influence, emphasizing the need for adaptability to external dynamics. The collective impact of these variables significantly contributes to understanding Business Growth, as supported by a well-fitted regression model. This study underscores the importance of strategic adaptability, innovation, and responsive management to external changes for sustainable business growth. The findings provide valuable insights for management, guiding the formulation of adaptive strategies to foster innovation, optimize resource utilization, and navigate external dynamics for enduring business success at BJB Coblong.

Kriz Dönemlerinde Sermaye Kaçışının Belirleyicileri: Türkiye'den Kanıtlar

Turkey, among a number of developing countries, has been exposed to capital flight in many periods of its economic history due to both global and domestic dynamics. Our study attempts to investigate the macroeconomic determinants of capital flight, which has occurred since the 2000s and whose emergence depends on different factors, with the VAR method for the Turkish economy. Although the analysis period is for the quarter period 2000q1-2020q4, the key macroeconomic determinants of capital flight are investigated by considering various sub-periods. The macroeconomic determinants of capital flight are investigated by taking into account the sub-periods indicating financial stress periods, which is the differentiating aspect of the study from the related literature. The outcomes indicate that there is a positive association between capital flight and external debt for the whole period, but an adverse relationship between capital flight and current account deficit and depreciation of the Turkish lira. Also, a positive association was indicated between capital flight and inflation rate. The empirical results show that there is ‎variation in the significant effect of the determining factors of the capital flight among the three examined periods. These results are important for determining the policy designs and key issues regarding Turkey's process of combating capital flight. Ensuring financial stability, building investor confidence, closely monitoring external borrowing dynamics, and implementing policies that prioritize the fight against inflation are integral parts of this process. Since they are also among the fundamental elements of macroeconomic stability, every step to be taken in this regard is of great importance.

Culture as the bad object

AbstractThis paper creatively extends Fairbairn’s theory to investigate the impact of the UK’s hostile environment policy on marginalised communities at the intersection of culture, politics and society. The hostile environment is conceptualised as a disruptive ‘bad object’ in the cultural dimension in alignment with Fairbairn’s theory. Its influence is explored in terms of its unconscious reproduction within the psyche. By juxtaposing context, theory and personal introspection, this paper offers a Fairbairnian exploration of how sociality and sociopolitical contexts interplay with the intricate processes of the human psyche. It provides reflective commentary on how external racial dynamics are internalised within the endopsychic structure, shaping one’s interactions with others, and, more significantly, how one relates to aspects of the self.

Optimizing Social Media as a Global Marketing Tool: Qualitative Analysis of Different Approaches in Enhancing the Image and Sales of Exported Products

Research Aims: This research aims to explore the role of social media in global marketing, particularly in shaping brand image and increasing sales of exported products. It seeks to analyze how social media platforms are utilized to capture global market shares, foster sustained relationships with consumers, and develop positive brand perceptions. Additionally, it aims to investigate the intrinsic relationship between brand image and sales volume, focusing on the impact of a positive image on consumer interest and exported product sales. Design/Methodology/Approach: Utilizing a descriptive qualitative approach, this study delves into consumers' preferences, behaviors, and perspectives regarding exported products while analyzing factors influencing brand image and sales through social media platforms. The methodology involves a thorough literature review, drawing insights from academic sources and scholarly works related to social media's role in global marketing, exporting products, and brand image enhancement. Research Findings: The research findings emphasize prevalent social media approaches in global marketing, including targeting specific markets, leveraging appropriate platforms, content-centric strategies, and engagement-oriented approaches. Despite notable benefits, around 30% of companies appeared to underutilize these strategies. Furthermore, a clear correlation between effective social media strategies and the positive image of exported products was identified. Successful social media applications, illustrated through case studies, highlighted the significance of internal understanding of target markets, crafting tailored content, and awareness of external factors like social media trends and cultural nuances. conclusion: This study underscores the pivotal role of social media in global marketing strategies, emphasizing the need for companies to adapt and align their approaches with internal and external market dynamics. The findings suggest that harnessing the potential of social media involves a comprehensive understanding of consumer behavior, market trends, and effective content strategies

Regional Abyssal Vorticity Balance in the Northeast South China Sea: External and Internal Dynamics of Abyssal Circulation

Abstract Abyssal vorticity balance in the northeast South China Sea was assessed for over a year based on observations from 28 current- and pressure-recording inverted echo sounders distributed west of the Luzon Strait. The regional first-order balance was dominated by the planetary vorticity flux and bottom pressure torque, which reflect the external and internal dynamics of abyssal circulation. Vertical motion considerably contributed to the planetary vorticity flux, whereas the contribution of horizontal motion was negligible. Positive and negative planetary vorticity fluxes dominate the areas along the eastern and western boundaries, indicating upward and downward vertical transport, respectively. The opposite planetary vorticity fluxes in the different areas were accompanied by different current patterns; regional anticyclonic and cyclonic characteristics appeared near the western and eastern boundaries, respectively, owing to the deep topography as the abyssal current followed the boundary. The planetary vorticity flux near the eastern boundary was substantial in spring and autumn; in contrast, along the western boundary it was enhanced only in spring. Deep eddies played important roles in planetary vorticity flux and regional vorticity balance. The results of this study reveal the formation dynamics of abyssal circulation in the South China Sea as well as its spatiotemporal distributions, providing a more detailed description of abyssal circulation. Significance Statement The deep South China Sea (SCS) is a nearly enclosed basin characterized by cyclonic abyssal circulation. Based on the observations from 28 current- and pressure-recording inverted echo sounders distributed west of the Luzon Strait, the vorticity balance in the deep SCS was clarified. The planetary vorticity flux and bottom pressure torque maintain a first-order balance of vorticity, which acts as the external and internal dynamics of the abyssal circulation. The study describes the temporal variability and spatial distribution of vorticity terms in the deep ocean west of the Luzon Strait, which may contribute to a more detailed understanding of abyssal circulation formation and its evolution.

External Debt Dynamics: Challenges for Middle-Income Countries in the Global Arena

External Debt Dynamics: Challenges for Middle-Income Countries in the Global Arena

A spiking binary neuron — detector of causal links

Purpose. Causal relationship recognition is a fundamental operation in neural networks aimed at learning behavior, action planning, and inferring external world dynamics. This operation is particularly crucial for reinforcement learning (RL). In the context of spiking neural networks (SNNs), events are represented as spikes emitted by network neurons or input nodes. Detecting causal relationships within these events is essential for effective RL implementation. Methods. This research paper presents a novel approach to realize causal relationship recognition using a simple spiking binary neuron. The proposed method leverages specially designed synaptic plasticity rules, which are both straightforward and efficient. Notably, our approach accounts for the temporal aspects of detected causal links and accommodates the representation of spiking signals as single spikes or tight spike sequences (bursts), as observed in biological brains. Furthermore, this study places a strong emphasis on the hardware-friendliness of the proposed models, ensuring their efficient implementation on modern and future neuroprocessors. Results. Being compared with precise machine learning techniques, such as decision tree algorithms and convolutional neural networks, our neuron demonstrates satisfactory accuracy despite its simplicity. Conclusion. We introduce a multi-neuron structure capable of operating in more complex environments with enhanced accuracy, making it a promising candidate for the advancement of RL applications in SNNs.