External Contingencies Research Articles

Prevalence of learned grapheme-color pairings in a large online sample of synesthetes.

In this paper we estimate the minimum prevalence of grapheme-color synesthetes with letter-color matches learned from an external stimulus, by analyzing a large sample of English-speaking grapheme-color synesthetes. We find that at least 6% (400/6588 participants) of the total sample learned many of their matches from a widely available colored letter toy. Among those born in the decade after the toy began to be manufactured, the proportion of synesthetes with learned letter-color pairings approaches 15% for some 5-year periods. Among those born 5 years or more before it was manufactured, none have colors learned from the toy. Analysis of the letter-color matching data suggests the only difference between synesthetes with matches to the toy and those without is exposure to the stimulus. These data indicate learning of letter-color pairings from external contingencies can occur in a substantial fraction of synesthetes, and are consistent with the hypothesis that grapheme-color synesthesia is a kind of conditioned mental imagery.

The role of a national regulator in developing solutions to governance challenges in the not-for-profit sector

This article presents empirical evidence of the governance challenges faced by not-for-profit (NFP) organisations. Drawing on interviews and survey data, the paper explores perceptions of NFP leaders concerning governance challenges, drawing implications for theory and practice. The research shows that NFPs face internal and external contingencies that determine effectiveness of governance systems. The study finds that considerable variation in the roles of boards exists. This has theoretical consequences, as the usefulness of stewardship, agency, resource-dependence and stakeholder theory varies according to the directives of NFP boards, and provides empirical evidence in favour of taking a contingency approach towards theories concerning NFP boards. The study further shows that director recruitment is challenging, particularly for NFPs with membership-based board models, as the constitution often determines a pool from which must be sourced. This often leads to directors not being recruited based on skills, which in turn increases the importance of skills development. While many respondents state they provide training, interviewees indicate that lack of time and resources pose practical obstacles. We contend that this lack of resources represents a contingency that can negatively impact board functioning. The findings furthermore suggest that funding dynamics can negatively impact accountability and governance. Specifically the fact that government is the largest donor in the sample, while the recipients of services are the most important stakeholders. While donor and stakeholder representation on boards may help to mitigate donor dependency and asymmetric accountability, the study finds that NFPs are often unable to recruit directors with appropriate skills. As it is also challenging to facilitate training due to the lack of resources, the result is a conflicting dynamic between the demand for skills and stakeholder representation on governance bodies. Respondents decribed the Australian charities regulator, the Australian Charities and Not-for-Profit Commission (ACNC), as a potential advisory and ‘go-to’ body that can help establish basic regulation and increase public confidence in the sector. The study suggests a role for the ACNC in assisting NFPs to reflect on contingencies and establish optimal governance configurations.

When more is not better: Complementarities, costs and contingencies in stakeholder management

Instrumental stakeholder theory has largely emphasized the positive effects of investing in stakeholder cooperative relationships in an additive, linear fashion in the sense that the more investments the better. Yet investing in stakeholders can be very costly and the effects of these investments in firm performance are subject to complex internal complementarities and external contingencies. In this article we rely on set-theoretic methods and a large international dataset of 1,060 multinational companies to explore theoretically and empirically some of the complementarities, costs and contingencies likely to arise in stakeholder management.

Collegiate Misuse of Prescription Stimulants: Examining Differences in Self-Worth

Background: Prescription stimulant medication is commonly used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, stimulant medication misuse is a prevalent problem among the college population. There is limited research on psychological factors associated with collegiate nonmedical stimulant misuse. Objectives: To examine the association between college students’ self-worth and stimulant medication misuse. Methods: A quantitative study implemented during the 2013–2014 academic year in which we utilized a convenience sample of undergraduate students at a public university. College students (N = 3,038) completed an electronic survey packet including a stimulant use index and the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale. We conducted descriptive discriminant analysis (DDA) to measure the associations between four groups: Nonusers, Appropriate Users, Nonprescribed Misusuers, and Prescribed Users. Results: Significant differences in contingencies of self-worth existed between the four groups of students. Specifically, external contingencies of self-worth, such as appearance and approval, were associated with stimulant medication misuse, whereas, internal contingencies of self-worth, such as God's love and virtue, were associated with nonuse and appropriate prescribed use. Conclusions/Importance: The findings of the current study suggested contingencies of self-worth partially explain prescription stimulant misuse among the collegiate population. Addressing self-worth may be helpful in the treatment of stimulant misuse with college students.

Trying to make things right: adherence work in high-poverty, African American neighborhoods.

Adherence to treatment recommendations for chronic diseases is notoriously low across all patient populations. But African American patients, who are more likely to live in low-income neighborhoods and to have multiple chronic conditions, are even less likely to follow medical recommendations. Yet we know little about their contextually embedded, adherence-related experiences. We interviewed individuals (n = 37) with at least two of the following conditions: hypertension, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. Using an "invisible work" theoretical framework, we outline the adherence work that arose in patients' common life circumstances. We found five types: constantly searching for better care, stretching medications, eating what I know, keeping myself alive, and trying to make it right. Adherence work was effortful, challenging, and addressed external contingencies present in high-poverty African American neighborhoods. This work was invisible within the health care system because participants lacked ongoing, trusting relationships with providers and rarely discussed challenges with them.

Too many products? Reaching the next billion customers of the beauty market

Purpose – The purpose of this article is to describe the rationale behind and analyze the results of a strategy in regards to changing conditions and market share dominance. For more than 20 years, with the growth in available product varieties, product and brand proliferation have become increasingly evident in many consumer markets. Design/methodology/approach – This article examines how three L’Oréal mass market businesses, i.e. L’Oréal Paris, Lascad and Gemey-Maybelline-Garnier (GMG), managed proliferation activities between 1988 and 2012 on their domestic market. Data were extracted from the information resources, inc. (IRI) Census and Sample Databases (retail panel data), and information was collected from internal sources and semi-structured interviews with top executives. Brand performance was assessed using panel data structure analysis, as recommended by IRI and Nielsen. Some data, as they remain confidential, were not included in the paper. Findings – The study reveals that when opportunities are lacking, demand is declining, and competition is fierce – the situation that marks most mature markets – a proliferation strategy actually can yield diminishing results and reduced brand dominance. Research limitations/implications – Offering broader lines appears to generate confusion and to be counterproductive in relation to theoretical assumptions. Additional research on proliferation strategies is needed, particularly in declining market conditions, which implies diminished demand and market saturation due to increased competition and isomorphic practices. Practical implications – When deciding to extend product lines, managers should take into account competition and more qualitative factors than those included in the models developed by and for store brands. The respective positioning and marketing strategy (i.e. challenger and leader) of the brands involved have also to be considered. Originality/value – Prior research on proliferation strategies has relied on strong assumptions such as increase in demand and unsaturated markets. Through these case studies, this article shows that making the shelf space denser affects brand dominance, particularly when market conditions change. These results challenge current thinking as, in facing internal and external contingencies, managers might think which scenario is most favorable for maintaining a dominant position: changing the structure of the market by reducing (i.e. concentration) or increasing the number of brands/products in the market.

Paying Restitution: Experimental Analysis of the Effects of Information and Rationale

Research SummaryMost crime victims do not receive the restitution they are owed. This study is an experiment that addresses two reasons offenders give for why they do not pay their court‐ordered restitution: (a) lack of understanding of how much they owe and where their payments are directed and (b) a belief that the sanctions are unfair. A total of 771 offenders were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 × 2 between‐subjects design in which, over a 6‐month period, three quarters of the offenders received monthly letters that contained (a) information or no information about the economic sanctions they had paid and what they still owed (Information manipulation) and (b) a statement or no statement about reasons for paying restitution (Rationale manipulation). The remaining offenders did not receive a letter. The results 1 year after the experiment began (6 months after the last letter had been sent) indicated that offenders who had received letters containing information (Information condition) paid significantly more money and made significantly more monthly payments than did offenders in the other three experimental conditions. A cost‐effectiveness analysis indicated that for every dollar spent on the experimental manipulation, approximately $6.44 in restitution was received.Policy ImplicationsResearch on deterrence has suggested that threatened punishment can lead to compliance only if the threat is real. The problem with such enforcement measures, however, is that this type of deterrence is too expensive to be broadly imposed. By contrast, inducing offenders to act based on internal motivation rather than in response to external contingencies of reward and punishment can lead to long‐term behavior change. This study suggests that informing offenders on a regular basis about how much restitution they have paid and how much they still owe can lead them to pay more restitution and to make more monthly payments. We believe these effects primarily are the result of a change in internal motivation because if it were fear of being monitored that led to the increased payments, then the absence of monitoring (i.e., no letters for 6 months) should have reduced that fear, meaning that payments should have been reduced. They were not. Although the question of the generalizability of the procedure remains open, the results of this experiment suggest that, at relatively little cost (because information about payments was gathered from individuals’ court dockets publicly available on the Web), governments can increase restitution payments, benefiting victims, society, and perhaps the offenders themselves.

Externally Contingent and Unstable Self‐Worth as Predictors of Depression in College Women: A 3‐Month Study

Undergraduate women completed measures of externally contingent self‐worth, self‐esteem instability, and depression at the beginning (Time 1) and again 3 months later near the end (Time 2) of an academic semester. Findings indicated that when Time 1 depression scores were controlled for, each Time 1 facet of self‐esteem made significant contributions to Time 2 depression scores. Implications of these findings for the counseling of depressed college students are discussed.

Interpersonal style should be included in taxonomies of behavior change techniques.

Interpersonal style should be included in taxonomies of behavior change techniques.

Does Casual Sex Harm College Students’ Well-Being? A Longitudinal Investigation of the Role of Motivation

Engagement in casual sex (or hooking up) is generally feared to have negative well-being consequences; however, empirical evidence is inconclusive, pointing toward potential moderators. Using self-determination theory (SDT), we hypothesized that well-being following hookups would depend on the type and level of motivation for hooking up. A university-wide sample of 528 undergraduates completed online surveys at the beginning (T1) and end (T3) of one academic year. After controlling for demographics, personality traits (i.e., neuroticism and extraversion), prior casual and romantic sex, and T1 well-being, having genital hookups between T1 and T3 for non-autonomous reasons (i.e., due to self-imposed pressures, external contingencies and controls, or complete lack of intentionality) was linked to lower self-esteem, higher depression and anxiety, and more physical symptoms. Autonomous hookup motivation (i.e., emanating from one's self) was not linked to any outcomes. Compared to peers without hookups, those with high non-autonomy in their hookups typically had inferior well-being; this was not true of those with low non-autonomy hookups. Gender differences, implications for SDT and casual sex research, and implications for educational programs and clinical work are discussed.

When do business units benefit more from collective citizenship behavior of management teams? An upper echelons perspective.

Drawing upon the notion of managerial discretion from upper echelons theory, we theorize which external contingencies moderate the relationship between collective organizational citizenship behavior (COCB) and unit performance. Focusing on business unit (BU) management teams, we hypothesize that COCB of BU management teams enhances BU performance and that this impact depends on environmental uncertainty and BU management-team decision latitude, 2 determinants of managerial discretion. In particular, the positive effect of COCB is stronger when environmental uncertainty or the BU management-team decision latitude is greater. Time-lagged data from 109 BUs of a telecommunications company support the hypotheses. Additional exploratory analysis shows that the positive moderating effect of environmental uncertainty is further amplified at higher levels of BU management-team decision latitude. Overall, this study extends the internally focused view in the micro OCB literature by introducing external contingencies for the COCB-unit-performance relationship.

Causal links between external contingencies of self-worth and mindfulness

Outcome research confirming the salutary effects of mindfulness-based interventions has proliferated in the last fifteen years. In contrast, there has been very little research into intra-individual factors that may enhance or inhibit mindfulness. The present study examined a proposal by Brown, Ryan and Creswell (2007a) that external contingent self-worth may act as an inhibiting factor of mindfulness. Undergraduate participants performed two reading tasks, one under neutral conditions and one under the influence of an academic ego-threat. Momentary mindfulness levels were measured retrospectively following both reading tasks. It was expected that levels of academic competence contingent self-worth would predict changes in momentary mindfulness levels between the ego-threat and neutral condition, and in addition, that worry would mediate the relationship. The study findings supported both hypotheses. The theoretical implications of the study are discussed in relation to the salience of self-investment in present moment events as a controlling variable of levels of momentary mindfulness.

Export market exploitation and exploration and performance

Purpose – Drawing on the resource advantage and organisational learning literatures, this paper aims to investigate the linear, moderated, complementary and non-linear effects of export market exploitation and exploration on export performance. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative study was performed using an online survey. The final sample consisted of 267 Portuguese export manufacturing firms. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling. Findings – Export market exploitation and exploration is positively and negatively related to export performance in a linear way, respectively. Export market exploration improves export performance under high levels of export market turbulence. Balancing export market exploitation with export market exploration enhances export performance. High levels of export market exploitation provide an additional boost to performance. Practical implications – This study contributes to a better understanding of how market exploitation and exploration relate to performance in the export context. To enhance export performance, managers should deploy high levels of export market exploitation, pursue export market exploration in dynamic export markets, and maintain a balance between export market exploitation and exploration. Originality/value – This paper contributes to the export marketing field by shedding light on the complex nature of the relationships among export market exploitation, exploration and performance. Overall, the results provide novel evidence concerning the internal and external contingencies that affect the success of export market exploitation and exploration.

Entrepreneurial marketing strategies during the growth of international new ventures originating in small and open economies

This research provides new knowledge on the development of marketing strategies in international new ventures (INVs) by applying the concept of entrepreneurial marketing to these early internationalizing firms. Using a qualitative approach, the authors identify the key dimensions of this concept in INVs, namely innovativeness and adaptation, and elaborate on both the defining elements and the development of these dimensions. They suggest that the innovativeness and adaptation of marketing strategies decrease during the global growth of INVs. Other contextual issues also underlie the development of international entrepreneurial marketing strategies; in particular, they appear to reflect the turbulence and global diversity of the environment and the market orientation of the INV. The marketing performance of INVs is determined by the fit between international entrepreneurial marketing strategies and the internal and external contingencies of the firm. Propositions for future research and managerial implications are provided.

International education research and the sociology of knowledge

The ontology of the field of international education is described and analysed in terms of singular, regional and generic modes of pedagogized knowledge. In contrast to singular and regional modes of knowledge which synthesize introjection (orientation onto themselves) and projection (orientation towards external contingencies), generic modes concentrate solely on projection onto the demands of the market. Generic knowledge is characterized as a reductive discourse that couples education to the acquisition of skills and competences. International education may be characterized as a region in which singulars (academic disciplines) are brought together in an integrating framework. ‘Internationally minded values’ are identified as constituting an overarching master view that weakens classification between the contents of the field of international education. It is proposed that the International Baccalaureate Learner Profile, as a specification for international education, constitutes pedagogized knowledge in the generic mode. Possible directions for future research in international education are discussed in the context of these contrasting modes of knowledge.

The innovation game: lessons in strategy and managing operations

PurposeThis paper seeks to present a teaching tool (the Innovation Game) which aims to demonstrate the challenges of developing an effective innovation strategy in the context of new product development. The goal of the game is to enable participants to experience how strategic and operational choices made in relation to innovation strategy are interrelated and how these choices can impact on new product development success. Specifically the paper aims to explore the impact of choices made in relation to capability accumulation, capacity management and product‐portfolio management.Design/methodology/approachAfter presenting the learning objectives for the game with the support of relevant literature, the paper describes the design of the game and the context in which it was played. The paper reviews feedback (learning outcomes) from formal reflective post‐game sessions with participants. This feedback indicates that the learning objectives have been satisfied.FindingsThrough experiential learning and reflective practice participants learn, for example, that: capabilities need to match the intended strategy; investing in production capacity can be leveraged to aid negotiations with competitors, or it can be used as a bully tactic; and, it sometimes is better to be an R&D “follower” rather than a “leader”. The participants also learn that the alignment of operational and strategic choices is necessary in order to leverage success in developing new products but that the actions and strategies of competitors have a direct impact also and need to be considered carefully.Research limitations/implicationsThe teaching tool adopts a participative game playing and reflective learning approach to introduce into class some of the real‐life competitive dynamics of managing new product development and decision making normally confined to the boardroom. While it is argued that the game demonstrates the challenges of developing successful strategy, the game is set in a static context in which certain external contingencies are not accounted for.Originality/valueDemonstration of the importance of strategy to new product development is particularly difficult because of the longitudinal nature of product development and the tacit nature of the decision making process which often transpires long after projects are completed. The paper posits that the value of the Innovation Game is in reflecting on it as a practical, interactive tool that helps participants appreciate the challenges inherent in strategic and operational decision making related to innovation strategy and new product development success.

Move to the Beat—Rhythms of Change and Firm Performance

This study examines how different rhythms of change relate to firm performance. An explorative analysis of 67 European insurance companies between 1995 and 2004 reveals that corporate strategic changes occur in four distinct rhythms, which are classified as either regular or irregular (focused, punctuated, and temporarily switching). Subsequent quantitative analysis shows that companies that change regularly outperform those that change irregularly. This finding prevails under different internal and external contingencies, under different change characteristics, and over time periods. We also find that the rhythm and frequency of change have distinct performance effects. Our findings contribute to research on the change-stability paradox by showing that a regular and sequential balance between change and stability is associated with long-term success.

Organisation of executive functions: Hemispheric asymmetries

This address provides a review of evidence for a deconstruction of executive functions, the set of cognitive operations which allow goal-directed behaviour. The underlying working hypothesis is that some complementary and computationally diverse executive functions are dissociable not only functionally but also temporally and anatomically, along the left-right axis of prefrontal cortex and related neural networks. In particular, criterion setting—the capacity to flexibly set up and select task rules—is more left-lateralised; monitoring—the process of continuously evaluating the internal or external contingencies to optimise behaviour—is more right-lateralised; finally, superior medial prefrontal regions, including dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, play a role in energising weakly activated but relevant processes. Several lines of empirical evidence, including neuroimaging and neuropsychological findings, are presented to support this tripartite model of executive functions. Evidence which is difficult to explain with this model and some future directions are also discussed.

A contextual, flexibility‐based model of the HR‐firm performance relationship

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to present a more refined and comprehensive explanation of the HR‐firm performance relationship. Based on the recent conceptual and empirical research that is grounded in attribution theory, the model posits that flexibility regarding firm's HR system is a key mediator in the focal relationship, and that environmental dynamism determines the extent to which flexibility may be required. Specifically, the model specifies that a firm's high commitment work system will have a direct influence on the flexibility of the HR system, as well as climate perceptions about commitment and performance. HR flexibility and climate will in turn influence employees' evaluative attributions regarding the effectiveness of the firm's HR system, which will in turn affect employee commitment and performance and ultimately, firm‐level performance outcomes. And finally, the model specifies that environmental dynamism will have a direct influence on HR flexibility and the resulting employee‐ and firm‐level outcomes. This explanation is designed to have broad utility in light of the adaptive requirements for firms that operate in rapidly changing and highly competitive conditions.Design/methodology/approachThis is a conceptual paper.FindingsThe proposed model provides a more comprehensive explanation of the mechanisms by which a firm's high commitment work practices may influence firm performance, and as such, offers both a diagnostic and prescriptive basis for improving and enhancing the firm's competitive position.Originality/valueThe analysis and discussion presented in this paper demonstrates the need for a broader perspective on the internal and external contingencies that influence the HR‐firm performance relationship. The proposed model addresses this need and offers a more detailed, flexibility‐based explanation of how HCWS affect individual and organizational performance outcomes. It is hoped that this expanded framework offers new insights that will help scholars and practitioners to consider the ways in which HR practices can be leveraged to promote committed, high‐performing employees that help organizations achieve sustained levels of superior performance.

Optimal Self–esteem is Contingent: Intrinsic versus Extrinsic and Upward versus Downward Contingencies

We argue that noncontingent, unconditional self–esteem is not optimal but defensive. We introduce the concept of intrinsic contingency, where self–esteem is affected by whether one's actions are self–congruent and conducive to personal growth. Whereas external contingencies, especially social and appearance, were negatively correlated with authenticity, self–compassion, and personal well–being, intrinsic contingencies were positively correlated with these measures, and uncorrelated with aggression and self–esteem instability. Participants with high intrinsic contingency rated higher on measures of psychological adaptiveness than noncontingent participants. In addition, we distinguish upward from downward contingencies, the latter being more harmful in case of external contingencies but not for intrinsic contingencies. We conclude that intrinsic contingency, rather than noncontingency, may reflect true self–esteem as implied in self–determination theory. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.