Extensive Wall Research Articles

Prognostic factors of resected lung cancer with chest wall involvement

Chest wall involvement in bronchogenic carcinomas is observed approximately 5% to 8% of resectable lung cancer. These carcinomas are classified as T3 or T4 depending on the structures involved, but in such cases, extended resection is needed to maximize the chances of durable disease control. Surgical resection, whose technical feasibility was firstly described in 1947, is the key element in the management of these patients and the effective role of multimodality regimens or the part of adjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy in the R0-chest wall invading NSCLC without nodal involvement is the argument of debate. Regardless of pT or pN, overall 5-years survival for these patients ranges from 10% to 61.4% in the different series. However, the prognosis of these patients depends on several factors. Different prognostic factors have been consistently reported in the literature for those patients. The most important are the presence of nodal involvement, with the worst prognosis in N1 et N2, incomplete resection of the tumor and pathological R1 or R2 disease, depth of chest wall infiltration and extension of resection. Age and female sex are other reported factors. Even if multimodality management encompassing chemotherapy and radiotherapy strategies in lung cancer invading chest wall is debated, a multidisciplinary approach, integrating surgery, neoadjuvant and adjuvant radio, and chemotherapy is the key to offer patients the best available solutions in the optimal timing.

Pectin methylesterase selectively softens the onion epidermal wall yet reduces acid-induced creep.

De-esterification of homogalacturonan (HG) is thought to stiffen pectin gels and primary cell walls by increasing calcium cross-linking between HG chains. Contrary to this idea, recent studies found that HG de-esterification correlated with reduced stiffness of living tissues, measured by surface indentation. The physical basis of such apparent wall softening is unclear, but possibly involves complex biological responses to HG modification. To assess the direct physical consequences of HG de-esterification on wall mechanics without such complications, we treated isolated onion (Allium cepa) epidermal walls with pectin methylesterase (PME) and assessed wall biomechanics with indentation and tensile tests. In nanoindentation assays, PME action softened the wall (reduced the indentation modulus). In tensile force/extension assays, PME increased plasticity, but not elasticity. These softening effects are attributed, at least in part, to increased electrostatic repulsion and swelling of the wall after PME treatment. Despite softening and swelling upon HG de-esterification, PME treatment alone failed to induce cell wall creep. Instead, acid-induced creep, mediated by endogenous α-expansin, was reduced. We conclude that HG de-esterification physically softens the onion wall, yet reduces expansin-mediated wall extensibility.

WEG1, which encodes a cell wall hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein, is essential for parental root elongation controlling lateral root formation in rice.

Lateral roots (LRs) determine the overall root system architecture, thus enabling plants to efficiently explore their underground environment for water and nutrients. However, the mechanisms regulating LR development are poorly understood in monocotyledonous plants. We characterized a rice mutant, wavy root elongation growth 1 (weg1), that produced higher number of long and thick LRs (L-type LRs) formed from the curvatures of its wavy parental roots caused by asymmetric cell growth in the elongation zone. Consistent with this phenotype, was the expression of the WEG1 gene, which encodes a putative member of the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein family that regulates cell wall extensibility, in the root elongation zone. The asymmetric elongation growth in roots is well known to be regulated by auxin, but we found that the distribution of auxin at the apical region of the mutant and the wild-type roots was symmetric suggesting that the wavy root phenotype in rice is independent of auxin. However, the accumulation of auxin at the convex side of the curvatures, the site of L-type LR formation, suggested that auxin likely induced the formation of L-type LRs. This was supported by the need of a high amount of exogenous auxin to induce the formation of L-type LRs. These results suggest that the MNU-induced weg1 mutated gene regulates the auxin-independent parental root elongation that controls the number of likely auxin-induced L-type LRs, thus reflecting its importance in improving rice root architecture.

The Uncertainty of Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Structure Based on Different Parameterization Schemes of Planetary Boundary Layer

Based on different parameterization schemes of planetary boundary layer (PBL), the uncertainty of intensity and structure of the Super-strong Typhoon Rammasun (1409) is investigated using the WRF model (v3.4) with six PBL parameterization schemes. Results indicate that PBL uncertainty leads to the uncertainty in tropical cyclone (TC) prediction, which increases with forecast time. The uncertainty in TC prediction is mainly reflected in the uncertainty in TC intensity, with significant differences in the TC intensity forecasts using various PBL schemes. The uncertainty in TC prediction is also reflected in the uncertainty in TC structures. Greater intensity is accompanied by smaller vortex width, tighter vortex structure, stronger wind in the near-surface layer and middle and lower troposphere, stronger inflow (outflow) wind at the lower (upper) levels, stronger vertical upward wind, smaller thickness of the eye wall, smaller outward extension of the eye wall, and warmer warm core at the upper levels of eye. PBL height, surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux are important factors that cause the uncertainty in TC intensity and structure. The more surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux and the lower PBL height, the faster TC development and the stronger TC intensity.

Theory and Practice in Measuring In-Vitro Extensibility of Growing Plant Cell Walls.

This chapter summarizes four extensometer techniques for measuring cell wall extensibility in vitro and discusses how the results of these methods relate to the concept and ideal measurement of cell wall extensibility in the context of plant cell growth. These in-vitro techniques are particularly useful for studies of the molecular basis of cell wall extension. Measurements of breaking strength, elastic compliance and plastic compliance may be informative about changes in cell wall structure, whereas measurements of wall stress relaxation and creep are sensitive to both changes in wall structure and wall-loosening processes, such as those mediated by expansins and some lytic enzymes. A combination of methods is needed to obtain a broader view of cell wall behavior and properties connected with the concept of cell wall extensibility .

Dimensionless numbers to study cell wall deformation of stiff mutants of Phycomyces blakesleeanus.

The sporangiophores of Phycomyces blakesleeanus are large cylindrical aerial cells that elongate vertically at rates between 10 μm/min and 60 μm/min. Wild‐type sporangiophores grow toward light, opposed to gravitational acceleration and away from solid barriers (tropic responses). Sporangiophores of stiff mutants C149 and C216 exhibit diminished tropic (bending) responses. Originally, it was thought that the altered genes affect the “stiffness” (elastic wall deformation) of the cell wall. Subsequent investigations employing the pressure probe demonstrated that the irreversible (plastic) wall deformation was smaller for the stiff mutants compared to wild type and could account for the diminished tropic responses. However, it was not shown whether the elastic wall deformation was altered in these stiff mutants. Recent theoretical studies have identified dimensionless numbers that can be used to quantitate the magnitudes of biophysical processes involved in expansive growth of walled cells. In this study, dimensionless numbers are used to determine the magnitudes of elastic deformation rate, plastic deformation rate, and stress relaxation rate of the cell wall during expansive growth of the stiff mutant sporangiophores. It is found that the altered genes reduce stress relaxation rates and plastic deformation rates of the wall, but do not significantly alter the magnitude of the elastic deformation rates of the wall. These results indicate that the mutant genes reduce wall loosening chemistry in these sporangiophores and the genetic mutation is not expressed in a change in “wall stiffness,” but in “wall viscosity” or “wall extensibility.”

Glucanase-Induced Stipe Wall Extension Shows Distinct Differences from Chitinase-Induced Stipe Wall Extension of Coprinopsis cinerea.

This study reports that a high concentration of the endo-β-1,3-glucanase ENG (200 μg ml-1) induced heat-inactivated stipe wall extension of Coprinopsis cinerea, whereas a high concentration of the extracellular β-glucosidase BGL2 (1,000 μg ml-1) did not; however, in combination, low concentrations of ENG (25 μg ml-1) and BGL2 (260 μg ml-1) induced heat-inactivated stipe cell wall extension. In contrast to the previously reported chitinase-reconstituted stipe wall extension, β-1,3-glucanase-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe cell wall extension initially exhibited a fast extension rate that quickly decreased to zero after approximately 60 min; the stipe cell wall extension induced by a high concentration of β-1,3-glucanase did not result in stipe breakage during measurement, and the inner surfaces of glucanase-reconstituted extended cell walls still remained as amorphous matrices that did not appear to have been damaged. These distinctive features of the β-1,3-glucanase-reconstituted wall extension may be because chitin chains are cross-linked not only to the nonreducing termini of the side chains and the backbones of β-1,6 branched β-1,3-glucans but also to other polysaccharides. Remarkably, a low concentration of either the β-1,3-glucanase ENG or of chitinase ChiE1 did not induce heat-inactivated stipe wall extension, but a combination of these two enzymes, each at a low concentration, showed stipe cell wall extension activity that exhibited a steady and continuous wall extension profile. Therefore, we concluded that the stipe cell wall extension is the result of the synergistic actions of glucanases and chitinases.IMPORTANCE We previously reported that the chitinase could induce stipe wall extension and was involved in stipe elongation growth of the mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea In this study, we explored that β-1,3-glucanase also induced stipe cell wall extension. Interestingly, the extension profile and extended ultra-architecture of β-1,3-glucanase-reconstituted stipe wall were different from those of chitinase-reconstituted stipe wall. However, β-1,3-glucanase cooperated with chitinase to induce stipe cell wall extension. The significance of this synergy between glucanases and chitinases is that it enables a low concentration of active enzymes to induce wall extension, and the involvement of β-1,3-glucanases is necessary for the cell wall remodeling and the addition of new β-glucans during stipe elongation growth.

Usefulness of cricoid pressure in patients with poor gastric wall extension as a result of eructation in upper gastrointestinal endoscopy.

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Silicon increases cell wall thickening and lignification in rice (Oryza sativa) root tip under excess Fe nutrition

Iron (Fe) as a micronutrients and silicon (Si) as a cell wall element are important in plant cell wall extension and integrity. While the interaction of exogenous Si and excess Fe on root cell wall modifications is known, the effects of these nutritional parameters on the spatial changes in the activities of genes and/or enzymes involved in the lignification of root cell walls are not well studied. Thus, these parameters were investigated in the root apical part (AP) and basal part (BP) of rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants supplied with and without Si (1.5 mM) under normal (10 mg/L) and excess Fe (150 mg/L) nutrition for 7 days. Beside growth retardation, excess Fe increased the activities of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), superoxide dismutase and NADPH–oxidase and PAL and cell wall peroxidase (POD) genes expression, along with the increased phenols and H2O2 contents in the root AP. Furthermore, the increased thickening of endodermal, exodermal and metaxylem cell walls in the root AP by excess Fe was attributed to the enhanced POD activity. POD expression, endodermal and exodermal cell wall thickenings were not affected by excess Fe in the root BP. Si application under excess Fe exaggerated the effects of excess Fe on root cell wall thickening, increased POD activity but reduced H2O2 content in the root AP. Thus, Si application under excess Fe nutrition promotes earlier initiation of lignin polymerization closer to and toward the root tip and hence restricts the entry of excess Fe into the plant.

Seeing the Cell Wall in a New Light.

How cell expansion is controlled to achieve a specific cell morphology remains one of the frontier questions in plant biology. The carefully guided extension of the plant cell wall produces a remarkable variety of cell shapes, and in a larger context, creates the physical frame for the plant itself

Chitinases Play a Key Role in Stipe Cell Wall Extension in the Mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea.

The elongation growth of the mushroom stipe is a characteristic but not well-understood morphogenetic event of basidiomycetes. We found that extending native stipe cell walls of Coprinopsis cinerea were associated with the release of N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose and with chitinase activity. Two chitinases among all detected chitinases from C. cinerea, ChiE1 and ChiIII, reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe wall extension and released N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose. Interestingly, both ChiE1 and ChiIII hydrolyze insoluble crystalline chitin powder, while other C. cinerea chitinases do not, suggesting that crystalline chitin components of the stipe cell wall are the target of action for ChiE1 and ChiIII. ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe walls showed maximal extension activity at pH 4.5, consistent with the optimal pH for native stipe wall extension in vitro; ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe wall extension activities were associated with stipe elongation growth regions; and the combination of ChiE1 and ChiIII showed a synergism to reconstitute heat-inactivated stipe wall extension at a low action concentration. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images showed that the inner surface of acid-induced extended native stipe cell walls and ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted extended heat-inactivated stipe cell walls exhibited a partially broken parallel microfibril architecture; however, these broken transversely arranged microfibrils were not observed in the unextended stipe cell walls that were induced by neutral pH buffer or heat inactivation. Double knockdown of ChiE1 and ChiIII resulted in the reduction of stipe elongation, mycelium growth, and heat-sensitive cell wall extension of native stipes. These results indicate a chitinase-hydrolyzing mechanism for stipe cell wall extension.IMPORTANCE A remarkable feature in the development of basidiomycete fruiting bodies is stipe elongation growth that results primarily from manifold cell elongation. Some scientists have suggested that stipe elongation is the result of enzymatic hydrolysis of cell wall polysaccharides, while other scientists have proposed the possibility that stipe elongation results from nonhydrolytic disruption of the hydrogen bonds between cell wall polysaccharides. Here, we show direct evidence for a chitinase-hydrolyzing mechanism of stipe cell wall elongation in the model mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea that is different from the expansin nonhydrolysis mechanism of plant cell wall extension. We presumed that in the growing stipe cell walls, parallel chitin microfibrils are tethered by β-1,6-branched β-1,3-glucans, and that the breaking of the tether by chitinases leads to separation of these microfibrils to increase their spacing for insertion of new synthesized chitin and β-1,3-glucans under turgor pressure in vivo.

Cell wall dynamics and gene expression on soybean embryonic axes during germination.

Identification of the structural changes and cell wall-related genes likely involved in cell wall extension, cellular water balance and cell wall biosynthesis on embryonic axes during germination of soybean seeds. Cell wall is a highly organized and dynamic structure that provides mechanical support for the cell. During seed germination, the cell wall is critical for cell growth and seedling establishment. Although seed germination has been widely studied in several species, key aspects regarding the regulation of cell wall dynamics in germinating embryonic axes remain obscure. Here, we characterize the gene expression patterns of cell wall pathways and investigate their impact on the cell wall dynamics of embryonic axes of germinating soybean seeds. We found 2143 genes involved in cell wall biosynthesis and assembly in the soybean genome. Key cell wall genes were highly expressed at specific germination stages, such as expansins, UDP-Glc epimerases, GT family, cellulose synthases, peroxidases, arabinogalactans, and xyloglucans-related genes. Further, we found that embryonic axes grow through modulation of these specific cell wall genes with no increment in biomass. Cell wall structural analysis revealed a defined pattern of cell expansion and an increase in cellulose content during germination. In addition, we found a clear correlation between these structural changes and expression patterns of cell wall genes during germination. Taken together, our results provide a better understanding of the complex transcriptional regulation of cell wall genes that drive embryonic axes growth and expansion during soybean germination.

Lateral nasal wall extension of the nasoseptal flap for skull-base and medial orbital wall defects.

Sinonasal and skull-base tumors that previously required open resection can often be completely resected via an endonasal approach. The nasoseptal flap (NSF) is the workhorse vascularized tissue flap for the endoscopic reconstruction of large skull-base defects from tumor resections. The objective of the current article is to describe a novel modification of the NSF for simultaneous reconstruction of skull-base and medial orbital wall defects. An extension of the standard NSF to include mucosa of the lateral nasal wall was developed for closure of simultaneous skull-base and medial orbital wall defects. Outcomes including successful cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak closure, orbital edema, and postoperative cosmesis are reported. Eyelid edema was characterized according to the Surgeon Periorbital Rating of Edema and Ecchymosis (SPREE) scale. Three patients underwent reconstruction using the modified NSF (average age 75 years). The average defect size of the skull base was 3.6 ± 0.1 cm by 2.3 ± 0.2 cm. The average defect size of the medial orbit was 2.7 ± 0.1 cm by 2.6 ± 0.1 cm. All defects were successfully covered intraoperatively using the lateral nasal wall extension of the NSF. Two patients developed mild eyelid edema, whereas 1 individual had no noticeable swelling (SPREE classification 2, 2, and 1). All patients were successfully sealed at last clinical follow up (average 28 weeks). The modification of the NSF described here provides excellent coverage for reconstruction of large anterior skull-base defects and simultaneous medial orbital wall defects.

Xyloglucan exoglycosidases in the monocot model Brachypodium distachyon and the conservation of xyloglucan disassembly in angiosperms.

Brachypodium distachyon has a full set of exoglycosidases active on xyloglucan, including α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, soluble and membrane-bound β-glucosidases and two α-fucosidases. However, unlike in Arabidopsis, both fucosidases are likely cytosolic. Xyloglucan is present in primary walls of all angiosperms. While in most groups it regulates cell wall extension, in Poaceae its role is still unclear. Five exoglycosidases participate in xyloglucan hydrolysis in Arabidopsis: α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, α-fucosidase, soluble β-glucosidase and GPI-anchored β-glucosidase. Mutants in the corresponding genes show alterations in xyloglucan composition. In this work putative orthologs in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon were tested for their ability to complement Arabidopsis mutants. Xylosidase and galactosidase mutants were complemented, respectively, by BdXYL1 (Bd2g02070) and BdBGAL1 (Bd2g56607). BdBGAL1, unlike other xyloglucan β-galactosidases, is able to remove both galactoses from XLLG oligosaccharides. In addition, soluble β-glucosidase BdBGLC1 (Bd1g08550) complemented a glucosidase mutant. Closely related BdBGLC2 (Bd2g51280), which has a putative GPI-anchor sequence, was found associated with the plasma membrane and only a truncated version without GPI-anchor complemented the mutant, proving that Brachypodium also has soluble and membrane-bound xyloglucan glucosidases. Both BdXFUC1 (Bd3g25226) and BdXFUC2 (Bd1g28366) can hydrolyze fucose from xyloglucan oligosaccharides but were unable to complement a fucosidase mutant. Fluorescent protein fusions of BdXFUC1 localized to the cytosol and both proteins lack a signal peptide. Signal peptides appear to have evolved only in some eudicot lineages of this family, like the one leading to Arabidopsis. These results could be explained if cytosolic xyloglucan α-fucosidases are the ancestral state in angiosperms, with fucosylated oligosaccharides transported across the plasma membrane.

Mechanism of E. coli Inactivation by Direct-in-liquid Electrical Discharge Plasma in Low Conductivity Solutions

This work investigates and reveals the main mechanism(s) responsible for inactivation of E. coli by in-liquid pulsed electrical discharge plasma in low conductivity solutions. Experiments were designed and performed to explore the effects of plasma-emitted UV light, oxidative radicals, and electric field on E. coli inactivation curves, rate of DNA leakage and visual appearance of the treated microorganisms. Results showed that electric field had the main role in inactivation; scanning electron microscopy images revealed that both plasma and the isolated electric field result in extensive cell wall disruptions. While this damage in the case of plasma treatment was extensive and distributed randomly along the envelope, the electric field-induced damage resulted in disruption primarily at the poles of the bacterial rods. Subsequent experiments conducted with an oxidative radical scavenger suggested that plasma-generated radicals do not contribute directly to the inactivation but assist in cell wall deterioration and extension of the ruptures first generated by the electric field.

Paramonoclimacis sidjachenkoi (Obut & Sobolevskaya) and the evolution of the streptograptid thecal aperture in the Silurian (Graptolithina, Monograptidae)

AbstractChemically isolated specimens of two species of the lower Silurian (Llandovery, mid–upper Aeronian) biform monograptid genus Paramonoclimacis, from Arctic Canada, show tubarium features evolutionarily linking it to the Streptograptus clade. The tubaria, coiled dorsally in the proximal end, show a number of streptograptid thecae with the distinct nozzle of a typical species of Streptograptus. Median thecae retain the nozzle, but are modified first into a wide, proximally directed flange with a shortened hook, while the ventral lobes are reduced. Distally, the thecal apertures form a strong ventral hood and two lateral lobes as an extension of the dorsal wall of the metatheca and not as a secondary construction or addition to a geniculum. The proximal streptograptid thecae of Paramonoclimacis may indicate the evolution of the Streptograptus clade through a Paramonoclimacis ancestor. The cupulae were previously thought to be restricted to the Streptograptus clade but are now also found in some species of Paramonoclimacis. There is a close connection between Paramonoclimacis and the genera Pribylograptus and Pernerograptus in the construction of complexly developed thecae and biform tubaria.

The brown algal mode of tip growth: Keeping stress under control.

Tip growth has been studied in pollen tubes, root hairs, and fungal and oomycete hyphae and is the most widely distributed unidirectional growth process on the planet. It ensures spatial colonization, nutrient predation, fertilization, and symbiosis with growth speeds of up to 800 μm h−1. Although turgor-driven growth is intuitively conceivable, a closer examination of the physical processes at work in tip growth raises a paradox: growth occurs where biophysical forces are low, because of the increase in curvature in the tip. All tip-growing cells studied so far rely on the modulation of cell wall extensibility via the polarized excretion of cell wall–loosening compounds at the tip. Here, we used a series of quantitative measurements at the cellular level and a biophysical simulation approach to show that the brown alga Ectocarpus has an original tip-growth mechanism. In this alga, the establishment of a steep gradient in cell wall thickness can compensate for the variation in tip curvature, thereby modulating wall stress within the tip cell. Bootstrap analyses support the robustness of the process, and experiments with fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) confirmed the active vesicle trafficking in the shanks of the apical cell, as inferred from the model. In response to auxin, biophysical measurements change in agreement with the model. Although we cannot strictly exclude the involvement of a gradient in mechanical properties in Ectocarpus morphogenesis, the viscoplastic model of cell wall mechanics strongly suggests that brown algae have evolved an alternative strategy of tip growth. This strategy is largely based on the control of cell wall thickness rather than fluctuations in cell wall mechanical properties.

Role of Multislice CT in Diagnosis, Staging and Evaluation of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma

Background: Malignant mesothelioma is a rare but fatal disease that arises from the epithelial lining of the pleura, peritoneum, pericardium and tunica vaginalis. Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is the most common form, accounting for 80-90% of malignant mesotheliomas Aim of the work: was to identify the value of CT in diagnosing malignant pleural mesothelioma and applying the AJCC and the IMIG staging system for MPM. At the time to identify the limitations of CT if any. Patient and methods: This prospective study included a total of 20 patients with CT findings suggestive of malignant pleural mesothelioma, diagnosed at Radiology Department, Damanhur Oncology Center. All patients had undergone multislice CT chest with intravenous contrast for detection and staging of the tumor. This study was conducted between March 2018 and December 2018. The data collected were tabulated and analyzed statistically. Results: CT study of the chest for cases of MPM was able to evaluate and diagnose the disease, with most of the important staging items being easily seen on CT yet this study also showed the limitations of CT in the staging MPM since CT alone was not able to prove the involvement of the chest wall, diaphragmatic muscle and trans diaphragmatic extension. Conclusions: Chest CT alone is often sufficient for disease staging and treatment planning. Typical CT findings that suggest MPM include unilateral pleural effusion with nodular irregular pleural thickening which can be discrete or diffuse with or without inter lobar fissure thickening and nodal metastasis.

Role of Multislice CT in Diagnosis, Staging and Evaluation of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma

Background: Malignant mesothelioma is a rare but fatal disease that arises from the epithelial lining of the pleura, peritoneum, pericardium and tunica vaginalis. Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is the most common form, accounting for 80-90% of malignant mesotheliomas Aim of the work: was to identify the value of CT in diagnosing malignant pleural mesothelioma and applying the AJCC and the IMIG staging system for MPM. At the time to identify the limitations of CT if any. Patient and methods: This prospective study included a total of 20 patients with CT findings suggestive of malignant pleural mesothelioma, diagnosed at Radiology Department, Damanhur Oncology Center. All patients had undergone multislice CT chest with intravenous contrast for detection and staging of the tumor. This study was conducted between March 2018 and December 2018. The data collected were tabulated and analyzed statistically. Results: CT study of the chest for cases of MPM was able to evaluate and diagnose the disease, with most of the important staging items being easily seen on CT yet this study also showed the limitations of CT in the staging MPM since CT alone was not able to prove the involvement of the chest wall, diaphragmatic muscle and trans diaphragmatic extension. Conclusions: Chest CT alone is often sufficient for disease staging and treatment planning. Typical CT findings that suggest MPM include unilateral pleural effusion with nodular irregular pleural thickening which can be discrete or diffuse with or without inter lobar fissure thickening and nodal metastasis.

Tensile Testing Assay for the Measurement of Tissue Stiffness in Arabidopsis Inflorescence Stem.

Lignocellulosic biomass is a versatile renewable resource for fuels, buildings, crafts, and biomaterials. Strategies of molecularly designing lignocellulose for industrial application has been developed by the discoveries of novel genes after the screenings of various mutants and transformed lines of Arabidopsis whose cell walls could be modified in the inflorescence stem, a model woody tissue. The mechanical properties are used as a quantitative index for the chemorehological behavior of the genetically modified cell wall in the tissue. This parameter can be measured with tensile or bending tests of tissue explants, the vibration analysis of tissue behavior or using atomic force microscopy to probe the tissue surface. Here, we describe in detail the procedure to determine the stiffness of methanol-fixed, rehydrated and pronase-treated inflorescence explants with a tensile testing machine based on classical methods for the determination of cell wall extensibility.