Ornament Expression Research Articles

Testosterone induces plumage ornamentation followed by enhanced territoriality in a female songbird

AbstractWe know little of the proximate mechanisms underlying the expression of signaling traits in female vertebrates. Across males, the expression of sexual and competitive traits, including ornamentation and aggressive behavior, is often mediated by testosterone. In the white-shouldered fairywren (Malurus alboscapulatus) of New Guinea, females of different subspecies differ in the presence or absence of white shoulder patches and melanic plumage, whereas males are uniformly ornamented. Previous work has shown that ornamented females circulate more testosterone and exhibit more territorial aggression than do unornamented females. We investigated the degree to which testosterone regulates the expression of ornamental plumage and territorial behavior by implanting free-living unornamented females with testosterone. Every testosterone-treated female produced a male-like cloacal protuberance, and 15 of 20 replaced experimentally plucked brown with white shoulder patch feathers but did not typically produce melanic plumage characteristic of ornamented females. Testosterone treatment did not elevate territorial behavior prior to the production of the plumage ornament or during the active life of the implant. However, females with experimentally induced ornamentation, but exhausted implants, increased the vocal components of territory defense relative to the pretreatment period and also to testosterone-implanted females that did not produce ornamentation. Our results suggest that testosterone induces partial acquisition of the ornamental female plumage phenotype and that ornament expression, rather than testosterone alone, results in elevations of some territorial behaviors.

Egg spottiness reflects female condition, physiological stress, and ornament expression in a common rallid species

Lay Summary • There is equivocal support for direct associations between maternal quality and deposition of protoporphyrin pigmentation (dark spots and blotches) in avian eggshells. • Research on protoporphyrin eggshell pigmentation has primarily focused on a single avian order (Passeriformes). • We examined associations of protoporphyrin-based eggshell pigmentation with female phenotypic and genetic traits in a non-passerine species, the Eurasian Coot. • Deposition of protoporphyrin in eggshells (total number per area of egg spots) positively correlated with female condition and expression of a putative bare-part ornament (frontal shield), while it was negatively associated with the level of physiological stress. • Protoporphyrin-based eggshell pigmentation acts as a reliable signal of female phenotypic (but not genetic) traits in the Eurasian Coot. • Signaling properties of protoporphyrin-based egg coloration are likely to largely differ between different evolutionary lineages of birds.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 is related to the expression of plumage traits in a passerine species

Avian plumage colors and ornaments are excellent models to study the endocrine mechanisms linking sexually selected traits and individual parameters of quality and condition. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is an evolutionarily highly conserved peptide hormone. Its regulatory role in cell proliferation and differentiation and its high sensitivity to the nutritional state of individuals suggest it as an interesting candidate, possibly providing a link between body condition and individual capacity to grow elaborated ornamental features. We investigated whether IGF-1 levels during molting correlate with the expression of multiple ornaments in a sexually dichromatic passerine species, the bearded reedling (Panurus biarmicus). We collected blood samples of males and females shortly before the molting completed and measured the size and colors of ornamental traits. Our results indicate that in males, structural plumage colors, the size of the melanin-based ornament (beard), and tail length are independent traits. IGF-1 levels are associated with the length of the tail and the expression of male structural plumage components (UV coloration), but not the melanin-based ornament. In females, plumage color and tail length were independent traits, which were not related to IGF-1 levels. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first evidence that IGF-1 could play a role in the development of secondary sexual characters in a bird species.Significance statementIGF-1 is an evolutionarily highly conserved peptide hormone, which recently entered the center stage of research enquiry in evolutionary biology. It is considered as one of the key factors shaping individual life histories, but little is known about its effects on sexually selected traits. We investigated whether IGF-1 levels during molting predict the elaboration of multiple ornamental plumage traits in male and female bearded reedlings (Panurus biarmicus). Our results indicate that higher IGF-1 levels had positive effects on male structural plumage colors and tail feather length. This is the first study, bringing indication for a potential role of IGF-1 in the expression of plumage ornaments in a bird species. Our findings suggest that IGF-1 might serve as an ideal candidate to study the mechanisms linking condition and the capacity to develop sexually selected ornaments.

Female preferences when female condition and male ornament expression vary

Abstract Variation in the condition of females can affect their mate preferences. This may explain variation in the expression of male ornaments. We tested these ideas in the mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor), a species in which females choose males based on their pheromones. We modified female condition using diets that differed in proteins and carbohydrates. We then allowed females to choose among males in which we had previously modified pheromone expression (either by varying diets as in females, or by fungal infection). Females were offered a choice between two males, both of which had been fed the same diet as the female, but which differed in whether they were infected or not. We repeated the same diet and infection treatments to determine whether poor (lower carbohydrate) diets decrease survival in both sexes. There was no effect of female diet on mate choice, but the infection state of the male did have an effect, with infected males being preferred. It is possible that infected males invest their resources in producing pheromones rather than attacking the pathogen. Both sexes, independent of infection, had higher survival when fed carbohydrate-rich diets. The results showed no effect of female condition on their preferences, at least not prior to copulation.

Carotenoid-based coloration predicts both longevity and lifetime fecundity in male birds, but testosterone disrupts signal reliability.

Sexual selection promotes the evolution of conspicuous animal ornaments. To evolve as signals, these traits must reliably express the “quality” of the bearer, an indicator of individual fitness. Direct estimates of individual fitness may include the contribution of longevity and fecundity. However, evidence of a correlation between the level of signal expression and these two fitness components are scarce, at least among vertebrates. Relative fitness is difficult to assess in the wild as age at death and extra-pair paternity rates are often unknown. Here, in captive male red-legged partridges, we show that carotenoid-based ornament expression, i.e., redness of the bill and eye rings, at the beginning of reproductive life predicts both longevity (1–7 years) and lifetime breeding output (offspring number and hatching success). The recently proposed link between the individual capacity to produce red (keto) carotenoid pigments and the efficiency of cell respiration could, ultimately, explain the correlation with lifespan and, indirectly, fecundity. Nonetheless, in males of avian species, carotenoid-based coloration in bare parts is also partially controlled by testosterone. We also manipulated androgen levels throughout life by treating males with testosterone or antiandrogen compounds. Treatments caused correlations between signal levels and both fitness components to disappear, thus making the signals unreliable. This suggests that the evolution of carotenoid-based sexual signals requires a tightly-controlled steroid metabolism.

Extra-pair paternity patterns in European barn swallows Hirundo rustica are best explained by male and female age rather than male ornamentation

Adaptive explanations for the evolution of extra-pair paternity (EPP) in birds often assume cuckolding males to be better-ornamented than cuckolded males. Several studies have confirmed that either male sexual ornamentation is associated with EPP or that phenotypes of cuckolded and cuckolding males differ. Expression of male ornamentation may change with age; however, a recent meta-analysis has identified age itself as an important factor that differed in cuckolding and cuckolded males. The age of social female partner may also affect EPP, though this has received little attention. Here, by using detailed data on age of individual barn swallows (Hirundo rustica rustica), we identified age as the major predictor of male and female promiscuity. Our results revealed that, whereas a male’s ability to obtain an extra-pair mate increased linearly with age, the only predictor of the probability of a male being cuckolded was the age of his social partner, with older females engaging more frequently in EPP. In contrast, male ornamentation was not significantly related to EPP pattern. Tarsus length was the sole significant phenotypic trait in comparison between cuckolding and cuckolded males. Our data provide little support for the hypothesis that extra-pair mate choice in our barn swallow population was ornament driven. This may indicate either a non-adaptive scenario for EPP, for example with older males better able to coerce females into copulation, or EPP mating based on other than absolute mate-choice criteria associated with the expression of male ornamentation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: We analysed patterns of extra-pair paternity (EPP) in barn swallows. Derived from observation of 160 nests, our results appear to differ from the findings of some previous studies that identified ornamental traits as being associated with extra-pair and within-pair paternity (WPP) in this iconic model taxon of sexual selection. In particular, tail streamer length had no detectable association with WPP or a male’s ability to obtain an extra-pair partner. Pairwise comparisons of cuckolded and cuckolding males, involving 76 mixed paternity nests, also supported the hypothesis that male ornamentation does not play a role in determining EPP patterns in the focal barn swallow population. When statistically controlled for clutch initiation date, the probability of obtaining an extra-pair partner only increased with increasing age of males, while WPP was only associated with the age of their female social partners. Our data provide little support for the hypothesis that extra-pair mate choice in our barn swallow population is ornament driven and indicated that age, rather than ornaments, would be a better predictor of paternity.

The redder the better? Information content of red skin coloration in female Japanese macaques

Primates appear unusual among mammals in the expression of female colorful ornaments in the absence of sex role reversal. Most studies of female ornamentation in primates have focused on the sexual signaling function of female exaggerated ano-genital swellings in female-female competition and male attraction, but other female colorful ornaments, such as red skin coloration, may also contain information about reproductive status and individual characteristics. We analyzed variation in facial and hindquarter coloration (redness and luminance) according to the timing of the fertile phase (intra-cycle variation), the cycle number, whether the cycle was conceptive or non-conceptive (inter-cycle variation), and in relation to individual characteristics (social rank, parity, and body mass) in 12 captive female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). While facial and hindquarter coloration did not accurately indicate the timing of the fertile phase, variation in hindquarter luminance signaled perceptible differences between pre- and post-ovulation stages. Hindquarters became less red, and faces were lighter as the number of consecutive cycles increased. Hindquarters were redder during non-conceptive cycles compared with conceptive ones. Individual variation in skin redness and luminance appeared perceptible under good light conditions. Higher-ranking females had darker hindquarters. We also found that variation in female skin coloration may contain information about differences in body mass but not in parity. Female skin coloration in Japanese macaques may thus be more indicative of inter-cycle variation and various specific female characteristics than the timing of the fertile phase. Our study provides insight into the potential information content of this signal and demonstrates the characteristics that males might be selecting for should males prefer redder females. Primates are the most colorful group of mammals. Females of some primate species display red skin color that is suggested to play a role in mate attraction by reflecting reproductive status or individual characteristics. In Japanese macaques, a species lacking accurate behavioral and auditory indices of the probability of ovulation, female red skin coloration (face and hindquarters) may influence mating activity. Our study shows that this colorful trait does not contain information about the timing of the fertile phase and parity but may indicate inter-cycle differences and some female characteristics. Our findings add to a growing body of research on the possible roles and functions of female colorful ornaments in animal sexual communication.

Gene expression profiling suggests differences in molecular mechanisms of fin elongation between cichlid species

Comparative analyses of gene regulation inform about the molecular basis of phenotypic trait evolution. Here, we address a fin shape phenotype that evolved multiple times independently across teleost fish, including several species within the family Cichlidae. In a previous study, we proposed a gene regulatory network (GRN) involved in the formation and regeneration of conspicuous filamentous elongations adorning the unpaired fins of the Neolamprologus brichardi. Here, we tested the members of this network in the blockhead cichlid, Steatocranus casuarius, which displays conspicuously elongated dorsal and moderately elongated anal fins. Our study provided evidence for differences in the anatomy of fin elongation and suggested gene regulatory divergence between the two cichlid species. Only a subset of the 20 genes tested in S. casuarius showed the qPCR expression patterns predicted from the GRN identified in N. brichardi, and several of the gene-by-gene expression correlations differed between the two cichlid species. In comparison to N. brichardi, gene expression patterns in S. casuarius were in better (but not full) agreement with gene regulatory interactions inferred in zebrafish. Within S. casuarius, the dorsoventral asymmetry in ornament expression was accompanied by differences in gene expression patterns, including potential regulatory differentiation, between the anal and dorsal fin.

Feeling the heat: Extreme temperatures compromise constitutive innate humoral immunity and skin color in a desert dwelling lizard.

Environmental temperature, particularly in habitats with extreme temperature fluctuations, may shape selection pressures on life history traits. Especially in ectotherms, temperature affects performance, physiology, and in some species, skin color. Skin color can be a sexual ornament signaling the bearer's ability to resist infections, when only high-quality individuals are able to invest both in high immune defense and elaborate ornament expression. However, how the information content of these sexual traits may vary with environmental conditions has been less studied. Dickerson's collared lizard (Crotaphytus dickersonae) males are blue and have a black and white collar. This conspicuous coloration signals performance and immune response, and is related to body temperature. Here, by maintaining males at higher, lower, and mean environmental temperatures we evaluated whether temperature variation influences color and constitutive innate humoral immunity (agglutination and lysis titers, estimated through hemolysis-hemagglutination assays), and whether extreme temperatures impose trade-offs between color and humoral immunity. We found that at low and high temperature treatments males had lower agglutination and lysis titers, and at low temperature, blue chroma from the dorsum declined and males became greener. Interestingly, at low and control temperature treatments, agglutination titer and blue coloration were positively correlated, whereas high temperatures revealed a trade-off between increasing agglutination titers and displaying bluer skin color. Our results suggest that in the Dickerson collared lizard even short-term variation of environmental temperature affects performance of constitutive innate humoral immunity and the brilliant blue skin color. Particularly, high temperatures may compromise some components of male's immunity and sexual signaling.

Post-natal corticosterone exposure affects ornaments in adult male house sparrows (Passer domesticus)

In vertebrates, the ontogeny of several crucial organismal systems is known to occur early in life. Developmental conditions can ultimately have important consequences on adult fitness by affecting individual phenotype. These developmental effects are thought to be primarily mediated by endocrine systems, and especially by glucocorticoids. In this study, we tested how post-natal exposure to corticosterone (the primary avian glucocorticoid) may subsequently affect the expression of ornaments in adult male house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Specifically, we investigated the long-term consequences of this manipulation on the size and color of several visual signals: badge, wing bar, tarsus and beak. Post-natal corticosterone exposure had a strong negative impact on the size, but not the color, of some male ornaments (badge and wing bar surface area). Because wing bar and badge surface area are used as sexual and/or hierarchical signals in house sparrow, we showed that early life stress can affect some aspect of attractiveness and social status in this species with potentially important fitness consequences (e.g. sexual selection and reproductive performance).Future studies need now to explore the costs and benefits of this developmental plasticity for individuals (i.e. fitness).

Female choice for sick males over healthy males: Consequences for offspring

AbstractSexual selection theory indicates that ornament expression in males is in close relation to their condition. This “honesty” relationship serves as the basis for female choice: Females would mate with healthy males over sick males after assessing male ornament signal expression and derive benefits for their progeny. Here, we investigated female mate choice for infected and non‐infected males, male survival after infection (to corroborate the negative effect of infection), and fitness consequences of female preferences using Tenebrio molitor beetles. Male infection was produced having two types of challenges as follows: males infected with entomopathogenic fungi and males infected with nylon implants. Similar to previous studies, we corroborated that females preferred fungus‐infected males over positive control, negative control, and nylon‐challenged males. Survival was the lowest for fungus‐treated males followed by nylon‐treated and control males. Females mated with fungus‐treated males laid fewer and smaller eggs, and the laid eggs had less lipid content with a reduced eclosion success compared to females mated with non‐challenged males. Our interpretation is that fungus‐treated males invested their energetic resources to increase their attractiveness at the risk of survival, in a terminal investment fashion. Females, however, would have corrected their choice by investing less in their offspring.

Comparative evidence supports a role for reproductive allocation in the evolution of female ornament diversity

1. Sexually selected ornaments are highly variable, even among closely related species, and the ultimate causes of variation in ornament evolution are unclear, including in rare cases of female ornament expression. One hypothesis is that differences across species in female reproductive allocation may help to explain patterns of female ornament expression among insects with nuptial gifts.2. Dance flies (Diptera: Empididae: Empidinae) vary considerably among species in the presence and extravagance of female ornaments, which probably evolved through female contests for mates. In most dance flies, adult females appear to acquire all their dietary protein from nuptial gifts provided by males during mating. The importance of nuptial feeding on egg development is not yet known.3. To test the prediction that the presence of female ornaments reflects differences in the degree to which females rely on nuptial feeding for egg development, egg development was examined in wild females of two species, one ornamented and the other unornamented. An ageing technique based on cuticular bands was validated, which permitted a regression of egg size on adult age.4. We found that egg development depended on mating status in the ornamented species alone, meaning the eggs of unmated females of the ornamented species did not develop. This contrast across species is consistent with expectations that females of different species vary in their dependence on nuptial gifts for egg development.5. These findings provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that differences in reproductive allocation mediate the intensity of female contests for nuptial gifts.

The Pharaonic sign “Ankh” between history and modern fashion

The Pharaonic era is one of the greatest and the oldest civilizations in the world. The ancient Egyptian arts are the product of that civilization whose origins were built on its long-established religious faith of the “Resurrection and Immortality”, which were closely linked to various aspects of the Egyptians' lives and ideas. From this point of view, the ancient Egyptian artist sought to embody these beliefs in most of his decorations and express them in a symbolic form, where he created an art that was characterized by the symbolic ornamental expression . The Hieroglyphic writing is the best example of symbolism in the ancient Egyptian life. The alphabet derives from the elements of the environment, more than a thousand common forms, of which about seven hundred symbols were represented in the drawings of objects such as the Nile Valley and its plants, the tools and machines, etc. The Pharaonic Ankh sign is one of the most famous religious symbols of the ancient Egyptians. It symbolizes divinity, resurrection, and immortality in eternal life. The first mantra in the ancient Egyptian creeds was presented by the Pharaonic god Thoth, the god of wisdom and knowledge to humans, First hieroglyphics. The Egyptians knew it to be a mascot of strength and protection from evil and harm and thus give eternal immortality. Therefore, many different civilizations were influenced by the Pharaonic sign Ankh, which spread throughout the world, so it has appeared on many ancient coins in Cyprus, Turkey and Asia Minor, and has been a symbol for more than 4,000 years. Also, it was a symbol of the Greek goddess Venus. The problem and objectives of this research can be formulated in: - The historical assets and the distinguishing features of the Pharaonic sign Ankh - The relationship between its shape and function of ancient Egyptian art - To highlight the aesthetic trends and decorative values ​​of the Ankh tag in ancient Egyptian art. - The possibility of using the Ankh in some designs of evening dresses for women - The opinions of specialists, consumers and producers in the proposed designs - Implementation of some of the proposed designs that obtained highest results according the categories of arbitration. Conclusions:The research samples from specialists and consumers agreed that the designs could achieve the harmony and compatibility between the design and the adornments in age ranging (20: 45) and the sizes of (40: 48), which are in line with a large extent with the trends of fashion and the evening clothing for women. This reflects the success of the designs and their acceptance by the consumer category and their agreement to buy and wear these designs because they represent a new addition to this type of clothing. Also, its differences from what is available in the market in its design and style of decorating and achieving excellence and individuality of the wearer. They also agreed on the compatibility of the proposed materials and their colors with the trend of fashion to a large extent. In addition, the opinions of the producers about the proposed designs represent a new addition to the evening dresses for women in the market and also emphasized their suitability for the age, stage designed for them as well as their validity for production and marketing according the lack of such products in the market. In general, the results proved that the ancient Ankh Pharaonic sign enriches the design of evening clothes for women and is an effective source of inspiration and quotation. The researcher recommends the need to pay attention to the study of our ancient history of the various artistic and aesthetic visions that enrich the trends of contemporary design and stimulate the creative thinking of fashion designers by integrating the originality in contemporary fashion of Pharaonic style.

Sexual selection on multiple female ornaments in dance flies.

Sex-specific ornaments typically occur in males, but they can also develop in females. While there are several models concerning the evolution of male-specific ornaments, it is not clear how, or under what circumstances, those models apply to female-specific ornament evolution. Here, we present a manipulative field experiment that explores the theoretical 'trait space' of multiple female-specific ornaments to study how these unusual traits evolved. We measured the attractiveness of two female-specific ornaments (pinnate leg scales and inflatable abdominal sacs) in the dance fly Rhamphomyia longicauda in a wild mating swarm. We found significant directional preferences for larger ornaments of both types; however, variation in one of the ornaments (abdominal sacs) was almost three times more effective at improving attractiveness. The abdominal ornament was consistently effective in increasing attractiveness to males regardless of leg ornament expression, while leg ornament size was only effective if abdominal ornaments were very small. These results are consistent with predictions from a sexual conflict model of ornament expression in supporting the probable role of deception in the evolution of female-specific ornaments among dance flies. Sexual conflict can be an important force in generating elaborate sex-specific ornaments in females as well as males.

Female ornamentation and the fecundity trade-off in a sex-role reversed pipefish.

Sexual ornaments found only in females are a rare occurrence in nature. One explanation for this is that female ornaments are costly to produce and maintain and, therefore, females must trade‐off resources related to reproduction to promote ornament expression. Here, we investigate whether a trade‐off exists between female ornamentation and fecundity in the sex‐role reversed, wide‐bodied pipefish, Stigmatopora nigra. We measured two components of the disk‐shaped, ventral‐striped female ornament, body width, and stripe thickness. After controlling for the influence of body size, we found no evidence of a cost of belly width or stripe thickness on female fecundity. Rather, females that have larger ornaments have higher fecundity and thus accurately advertise their reproductive value to males without incurring a cost to fecundity. We also investigated the relationship between female body size and egg size and found that larger females suffer a slight decrease in egg size and fecundity, although this decrease was independent of female ornamentation. More broadly, considered in light of similar findings in other taxa, lack of an apparent fecundity cost of ornamentation in female pipefish underscores the need to revisit theoretical assumptions concerning the evolution of female ornamentation.

Sperm variation in Great Tit males (Parus major) is linked to a haematological health-related trait, but not ornamentation

The phenotype-linked fertility hypothesis (PLFH) proposes that both sexual ornaments and sperm traits are phenotypically plastic and co-affected by environmental factors through individual condition, resulting in a positive correlation between ornament expression and functional fertility. Ornaments may then serve females in the identification of the most fertile males. Despite intense research on the relationship between sexual characters and male ejaculate quality, published results are not consistent with the PLFH. The aim of our study was to test if sperm morphology is associated with sexual ornamentation and several health/condition-dependent traits in Great Tit males (Parus major). We evaluated the association between sperm morphology and two types of ornaments, carotenoid- and melanin-based ventral feather coloration, to evaluate predictions of the PLFH. As surrogates for condition and health/stress status, we used standardized male weight and the peripheral blood heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H/L). Also, we used the immature erythrocyte frequency as a trait linked to the rate of haematopoiesis, and presumably metabolism and pace of life. Our results support an association of sperm traits with health-related traits: the within-male variability in total sperm length was negatively related to the H/L ratio. This either suggests that birds maintaining low sperm variability may afford to invest more into heterophil production or, in contrast to the PLFH, there could be a trade-off between individual investment in reproduction (ejaculate quality) and the avoidance of long-term physiological stress. Contrary to the predictions of the PLFH we were unable to identify any parameter of sperm morphology associated with either body condition or the expression of male sexual traits. Thus, our study contributes to evidence rejecting the hypothesis of ornamental involvement in fertility selection, while giving weak support to the sperm competition theory.

Male mate choice as differential investment in contest competition is affected by female ornament expression.

High male mating effort and high variation in female quality select for male mate choice, which may be expressed as differential investment of reproductive effort based on female value. Male reproductive effort includes investment in direct contest competition with rival males for access to females, yet variation in male–male contest behavior is rarely examined in the context of male mate choice. We examine such male response to variation in female body size, reproductive state, and female-specific ornamentation in the striped plateau lizard, Sceloporus virgatus. We housed lizards in trios of 2 size-matched males and one female for 5 days, such that all 3 lizards were physically isolated and the males could see the female but not each other. We then placed males simultaneously into the female’s cage and scored the interaction. Male–male aggression was not significantly affected by female body size, reproductive state, nor ornament color, but was influenced by ornament size which reliably signals the phenotypic quality of the female and her offspring. In the presence of larger-ornamented females, males engaged in more male–male aggressive display behavior more quickly, and performed fewer high-intensity contact behaviors but were equally likely to escalate to this riskier level of fighting. Our data suggest that males adjust their energetic investment during intrasexual competitive interactions in response to variation in the contested female which, assuming males gain direct or indirect benefits from their strategic allocation of reproductive effort, fits the modern understanding of male mate choice.

The Contribution of Cultural Art in the Creation of Liong Ornament on the Roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple Semarang Central Java

AbstractThe Liong Ornaments on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple in Semarang Central Java are influenced by the various contributions of art and culture to its creation. The issues raised in this research, namely: 1) How Liong ornaments form on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple are; 2) How art elements on Liong ornaments on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple; 3) What are the contributions of art and culture to the creation of Liong ornaments on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple Semarang Central Java. The purpose of this study is to provide an explanation of Liong ornament form on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple; art elements on Liong ornaments on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple; and cultural art contribution to the creation of Liong statue ornament on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple Semarang Central Java. This research uses qualitative method with case study approach. Ornaments Liong statue on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple is a three-dimensional work with simplification and deformation techniques. Liong statue ornament is an imitative form of Chinese mythology animal. The texture of the ornament, ie smooth, smooth wavy, and rough. Liong Ornaments use seven colors and contain elements of blue monochromatic color. Liong Ornaments are included in imitative artwork with a style of naturalist expression. Expression of ornaments, namely anger, ambition, and firmness. Liong ornaments form on the roof of Tay Kak Sie Temple Semarang Central Java influenced by the factors of artists, culture, the influence of the Ming Dynasty, the location of the temple, and trust.Keywords: Contribution of Cultural Art, Creation, Liong Ornament, Temple

Scale-of-choice effect in the assortative mating by multiple ornamental and non-ornamental characters in the black-headed gull

Assortative mating is a tendency to mate with phenotypically similar individuals as a consequence of either selection acting on mate preferences or individual constraints resulting from temporal and spatial segregation. The aim of this study was to examine the patterns of assortative mating in a plumage-monomorphic bird species, the black-headed gull Chroicocephalus ridibundus. For this purpose, we captured 217 pairs of gulls breeding in two colonies in northern Poland over six years and assessed whether they mated assortatively based on morphology, condition, individual genetic diversity, and expression of ornaments. An analysis of raw data (colonies and years combined) provided support for assortative mating by specific structural characters (head and wing morphology) and condition (size-corrected body mass). However, these relationships lost significance after removing inter-colony and inter-annual variation in the traits, suggesting that they were primarily driven by spatial and temporal segregation of individuals. We also found support for assortative mating by the size, but not coloration, of two melanin-based plumage ornaments (hood and wingtip). These correlations were retained after removing variation between colonies and years, suggesting that they could be due to directional mate preferences. No evidence was found for assortative mating by physiological measures of condition (blood hemoglobin concentration and plasma metabolite concentrations) and heterozygosity of neutrally selected microsatellite loci. Our study provides rare evidence for the scale-of-choice effect in assortative mating, where different variants of a given trait are distributed non-randomly across spatial or temporal scales and pooling them into a single heterogeneous sample may produce false-positive results. Animals often choose their reproductive partners non-randomly, preferring to mate with individuals that are similar by certain phenotypic characters, which results in an assortative pattern of mating. However, similar patterns can occur as a result of non-random distribution of individuals across spatial and temporal scales. Here, we examined the patterns of assortative mating in a colonial waterbird, the black-headed gull Chroicocephalus ridibundus. We found that assortative mating by morphological characters and condition was apparent only in a heterogeneous sample, where data from different colonies and years were pooled together. In contrast, assortative mating by the size of melanin-based plumage ornaments (hood and wingtip) was retained after removing inter-colony and inter-annual variation in these traits. Our study provides a rare example of the scale-of-choice effect in assortative mating of birds.

The relationship between blood parasites and ornamentation depends on the level of analysis in the common yellowthroat

The Hamilton–Zuk hypothesis predicts that ornament expression is a signal of the ability of individuals to resist parasite infection. Thus, across a population (i.e. between‐individuals) more ornamented individuals should have lower levels of parasitism. Numerous studies have tested this prediction and the results are mixed. One reason for these conflicting results may be that many studies have examined this relationship at the between‐individual level, which may be affected by confounding factors such as selective mortality. Using within‐subject centering we examined the relationship between male ornamentation and avian blood parasites at both the between‐ and within‐individual levels. These relationships focus on differences in genetically‐based resistance to parasites and the trade‐off in resource allocation between parasite resistance and ornament expression within an individual, respectively. We studied male common yellowthroats Geothlypis trichas, which have two plumage ornaments, a yellow, carotenoid‐based bib (throat and chest) and a black, melanin‐based facial mask. Surprisingly, within‐individuals, an increase in parasitism between years was associated with an increase in mask size and, potentially, greater concentration of carotenoids in the yellow feathers. This suggests that males may be able to tolerate an increase in parasitism and still increase ornament expression. In contrast, ornamentation was not related to parasitism at the between‐individual level. Thus, our study revealed relationships between ornaments and parasitism at the within‐individual level that were not present at the between‐individual level. Our results highlight the importance of examining both within‐ and between‐individual relationships as correlations between variables, such as ornaments and parasites, may depend on the level of analysis (i.e. within‐ or between‐individuals).