Exploratory Factor Analysis Research Articles

RHD-HA-9: A scale for nurses to assess readiness for hospital discharge in older adults following hip arthroplasty-development and psychometric testing.

Designing an instrument to assess discharge readiness post-hip surgery is essential due to trends showing poor patient outcomes, such as pain management issues, mobility challenges, and insufficient home support. A structured assessment tool would help ensure patients are better prepared for recovery, reducing the risk of complications and readmission. To develop and test the psychometric properties of the Readiness for Hospital Discharge Scale (RHD-HA-9) for hip arthroplasty. Items were generated from a comprehensive literature review and individual, face-to-face interviews with experts and patients. A cross-sectional study was conducted across four tertiary governmental hospitals to evaluate the psychometric properties of the scale. Data were collected from a total of 200 older adults who had undergone hip arthroplasty between June 2020 and February 2021. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed on data from 100 older adults to identify the underlying factor structure, followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) on a separate 100-patient dataset to validate the model. The questionnaire's internal consistency, corrected item-total correlations, inter-rater reliability, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity were assessed. The RHD-HA-9 included nine items, categorized into two factors: the physical performance of hip function and barriers to physical activity. EFA and CFA confirmed these factors, explaining 62% of the total variance. Model fit indices were acceptable (CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, SRMR = 0.04), though RMSEA was 0.12. Chi-square was significant (χ2 = 0.056, df = 24, p <0.001). The scale showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.89) and stability (ICC = 0.94). ROC analysis identified a cutoff of 9.5, with a sensitivity of 90.7%, specificity of 70.6%, and AUC of 0.89. The RHD-HA-9 demonstrated strong psychometric properties for assessing discharge readiness in older adults following hip arthroplasty. It identifies patients who need additional support during their transition home. Nurses can use this tool to accurately assess patient needs and implement effective post-discharge care, thereby enhancing patient outcomes.

Factors Influencing Chinese Learners’ Satisfaction with Online Classes: Insights from Confucius Institutes in Hungary

This quantitative study investigates the factors that influence Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) learners’ satisfaction with online learning in the context of Hungarian Confucius Institutes. The COVID-19 pandemic forced a rapid shift to online instruction, and while the acute phase of the pandemic has subsided, its impact on education remains significant. This study explores learners’ preferences and satisfaction with online learning in the post-pandemic era. A questionnaire was administered to 241 CFL learners across five Confucius Institutes in Hungary, and in-depth interviews were conducted with two learners to provide contextual insights. An exploratory factor analysis and a scale reliability analysis were performed to examine the underlying structure and reliability of the questionnaire data. Five key factors influencing learner satisfaction were identified: engagement and interaction, technical issues, preferences for learning methods, teaching methods and course design, and assessment and feedback. Learners expressed a strong preference for face-to-face learning, citing concerns about engagement, interaction, and motivation in online environments. Technical challenges and the user interface of the online learning platform were also areas of concern. However, learners expressed satisfaction with teachers’ performance and responsiveness in online classes.

Development of the Psychological Flexibility in Romantic Relationships Scale (PFRRS): A Validity and Reliability Study

This study presents the validity and reliability analyses of the Psychological Flexibility in Romantic Relationships Scale. The measurement tool, developed for individuals who have been in a romantic relationship for at least six months, has a unidimensional structure consisting of 6 items. For the validity and reliability studies, data were collected from two separate study groups in 2024. The first group consisted of 80 participants, while the second group included 218 participants. The data were analyzed using SPSS 29.00 and AMOS 24.00. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to assess the construct validity of the scale. The results confirmed that the 6-item unidimensional structure of the scale was valid. Reliability and internal consistency analyses indicated that the items were highly discriminative and reliable. Overall, the findings demonstrated that the Psychological Flexibility in Romantic Relationships Scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool.

Developing a novel parental phubbing scale of mother and father forms for adolescents in Türkiye: A validity and reliability study

Parental phubbing occurs when parents interrupt and neglect communication with their child by focusing on their smartphones. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive scale for perceived parental phubbing and examine its psychometric properties. The scale was initially developed based on a review of existing research and essays written by secondary school adolescents aged 10–15 years, who represented the target group. Construct validity was assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on samples of Turkish adolescents (NEFA = 325, NCFA=210). EFA identified a 10-item structure with two factors—“interaction interruptions” and “emotional reactions”—which accounted for a significant portion of the total variance in both the Parental Phubbing Scale-Mother (PPS-M) and Father (PPS-F) Forms. CFA confirmed this structure, with both forms demonstrating a good fit. Criterion validity was evaluated through correlations with the short forms of the Smartphone Addiction Scale and UCLA Loneliness Scale, showing positive correlations. Reliability analysis indicated that both Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω coefficients exceeded 0.70 for both the PPS-MF and PPS-FF. Test-retest reliability coefficients ranged between 0.70 and 0.82 for both forms. In conclusion, the PPS-MF and PPS-FF are valid and reliable instruments for assessing parental phubbing based on adolescents' perceptions.

Determining the Applicability and Use of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in the Context of Water Conservation

Urgent action is needed to educate the public and encourage water conservation behaviors amidst the global threat of water scarcity impacting billions by 2050. Crafting tailored educational programs about water conservation is crucial for incentivizing behavior change and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Intrinsic motivation, which is shaped by personal interests and values, plays a fundamental role in understanding individual behavior in various contexts, and therefore may aid in our understanding of water conservation behaviors. Despite the widespread application of the intrinsic motivation inventory (IMI) to measure intrinsic motivation, its adaptation and utilization in water conservation education remains largely unexplored, prompting this study to establish a relevant scale for intrinsic motivation in the context of water conservation education. Data were collected from 907 respondents in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama and subsequently analyzed using an exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis to establish and confirm factor structures related to intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, perceived choice, and relatedness in water conservation. The study findings established the Water Conservation IMI as a reliable tool for measuring intrinsic motivation in water conservation education. Further validation of measures for extrinsic motivation in environmental literature are needed to enhance comprehensive education strategies for sustainability.

Predictors of Suicidal Thoughts and Attempts among School-Going Thai Adolescents: A Sex-Specific Structural Equation Modelling Analysis.

Adolescent suicide is a growing public health concern in Thailand. Identifying predictors of suicidal behaviors is essential for targeted prevention strategies. Using Structural Equation Modeling, this study explores the predictors of suicidal thoughts and attempts among a sample of 5657 Thai adolescents in grades 7-12, typically representing the age group 13-17 years, with nearly equal proportions of males (47%) and females (53%) participants. Data from the Thailand Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 2021 were analyzed. Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) identified key constructs, followed by SEM stratified by sex to examine relationships between constructs and suicidal behaviors. Reliability and validity were assessed using Cronbach's α and SEM fit indices. EFA identified five constructs: current substance use, history of violence, experiences of bullying, parental awareness, and poor mental health. SEM revealed poor mental health as a significant predictor for both sexes. Substance use, experiences of bullying, and a history of violence predicted suicidal behaviors in females. Parental vigilance was only a protective factor for males. The findings underscore the importance of gender-specific interventions and comprehensive mental health support to address the unique vulnerabilities of Thai adolescents, reducing suicidal thoughts and attempts.

Development and validation of a neuroticism scale: Assessment of reliability and validity

Neuroticism, a personality trait linked to emotional instability and negative emotions, is associated with increased anxiety, depression, and poor mental health outcomes, particularly in individuals with psychiatric disorders. However, existing neuroticism scales often have too many items, are not tailored for psychiatric populations, and lack cultural adaptation for Chinese contexts. We aimed to develop a brief neuroticism scale with adequate reliability and validity for the Chinese population, including individuals with psychiatric disorders. The 14-item scale was developed based on the five-factor model and Eysenck&amp;rsquo;s personality theory. The scale, in the form of a questionnaire, was distributed to college students from Southeast University and patients from the Affiliated Zhongda Hospital of Southeast University. A total of 554 participants were recruited, and demographic information, the neurotic subscale of the Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-7) were collected along with the neuroticism scale. Correlation analysis, Cronbach&amp;rsquo;s alpha, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted to test and revise the scale. EFA indicated that the neuroticism scale consisted of four factors: Low self-esteem, excessive emotional sensitivity, unstable mood, and excessive worry. The Cronbach&amp;rsquo;s alpha was 0.926. CFA suggested a good fit of the scale structure (&amp;chi;2/df =2.506, root mean square error of approximation =0.039, Tucker&amp;ndash;Lewis index =0.947, comparative fit index =0.959, and standardized root mean square residual =0.032). The total scores of the neuroticism scale were positively related to those of PHQ-9, GAD-7, and NEO-FFI. The results indicate that the neuroticism scale exhibited a stable four-dimensional structure with good reliability and validity in the Chinese population. It is useful and time-saving for assessing neuroticism in individuals with psychiatric disorders.

Teaching the Mechanics of Factor Analysis Using Excel Spreadsheets

Many software programs can be used to train psychology graduate students and researchers to perform various types of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. However, the mechanics of the model fitting process are generally opaque to the student or researcher when using these programs. We propose that spreadsheets can be a very effective tool for enabling psychology students to obtain a better understanding of what is “under the hood” of the factor analysis methods they are implementing with popular software packages such as SPSS, AMOS, R, or MPlus. In this paper we present an Excel workbook that illustrates exploratory factor analysis via the principal axis factoring method and maximum likelihood estimation. Varimax and oblimin rotation of factor loadings is also demonstrated. We also illustrate several different confirmatory factor analysis models: (i) the unidimensional model, (ii) the multiple uncorrelated factors model, (iii) the multiple correlated factors model, and (iv) the bifactor model. Although we are not advocating Excel spreadsheets as the method of choice for factor analysis, we believe they are excellent tools for teaching the mechanics of factor analysis to psychology graduate students and researchers.

Four New Patient-Reported Outcome Measures Examining Health-Seeking Behavior in Persons With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (REDD-CAT): Instrument Development Study.

The management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) includes mastery of complex care activities, self-management skills, and routine health care encounters to optimize glucose control and achieve good health. Given the lifelong course of T2DM, patients are faced with navigating complex medical and disease-specific information. This health-seeking behavior is a driver of health disparities and is associated with hospitalization and readmission. Given that health-seeking behavior is a potentially intervenable social determinant of health, a better understanding of how people navigate these complex systems is warranted. To address this need, we aimed to develop new patient-reported outcome (PRO) measures that evaluate health-seeking behavior in persons with T2DM. These new PROs were designed to be included in the Re-Engineered Discharge for Diabetes-Computer Adaptive Test (REDD-CAT) measurement system, which includes several other PROs that capture the importance of social determinants of health. Overall, 225 participants with T2DM completed 56 self-report items that examined health-seeking behaviors. Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory were used for measurement development. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; criterion ratio of eigenvalue 1 to eigenvalue 2 being >4; variance for eigenvalue 1 ≥40%) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; criterion 1-factor CFA loading <.50; 1-factor CFA residual correlation >.20; comparative fit index ≥0.90; Tucker-Lewis index ≥0.90; root mean square error of approximation <0.15) were used to determine unidimensional sets of items. Items with sparse responses, low-adjusted total score correlations, nonmonotonicity, low factor loading, and high residual correlations of high error modification indices were candidates for exclusion. A constrained graded response model was used to examine item misfit, and differential item functioning was examined to identify item bias. Cronbach α was used to examine internal consistency reliability for the new PROs (criterion ≥0.70), and floor and ceiling effects were examined (criterion ≤20%). Four unidimensional sets of items were supported by EFA (all EFA eigenvalue ratios >4; variance for eigenvalue 1=41.4%-67.3%) and CFA (fit statistics all exceeded criterion values). This included (1) "Health-Seeking Behavior: PCP-Specific" (6 items); (2) "Health-Seeking Behavior: General Beliefs" (13 items); (3) "Health-Seeking Behavior: Family or Friends-Specific" (5 items); and (4) "Health-Seeking Behavior: Internet-Specific" (4 items). All items were devoid of differential item functioning for age, sex, education, or socioeconomic status factors. "Health-Seeking Behavior: General Beliefs" was developed to include both a computer adaptive test and a 6-item short form version; all other PROs were developed as static short forms. The psychometric reliability of these new PROs was supported; internal consistency ranged from acceptable to excellent (Cronbach α=.78-.91), and measures were free of significant floor or ceiling effects (floor effects range: 0%-8.9%; ceiling effects range: 0%-8.4%). The new REDD-CAT Health-Seeking Behavior PROs provide reliable assessments of health-seeking behaviors among those with T2DM.

A hybrid approach for modelling safety hazards in China subways: multi-stakeholders’ perspective

PurposeUnlike previous research that primarily utilized structural equation modelling (SEM) to evaluate safety hazards in subway projects, this research aims to utilize a hybrid approach to investigate and scrutinize the key indicators of safety hazards leading to accidents, thereby hindering the progress of subway projects in China, taking into cognizance the multiple stakeholder’s perspective.Design/methodology/approachBy administering a survey questionnaire to 373 highly involved stakeholders in subway projects spanning Changsha, Beijing and Qingdao, China, our approach incorporated a four-staged composite amalgamation of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM) and artificial neural network (ANN) to develop an optimized model that determines the causal relationships and interactions among safety hazards in subway construction projects.FindingsThe optimized model delineated the influence of individual safety hazards on subway projects. The feasibility and applicability of the model developed was demonstrated on an actual subway project under construction in Changsha city. The outcomes revealed that the progress of subway projects is significantly influenced by risks associated with project management, environmental factors, subterranean conditions and technical hazards. In contrast, risks related to construction and human factors did not exhibit a significant impact on subway construction progress.Research limitations/implicationsWhile our study provides valuable insights, it is important to acknowledge the limitation of relying on theoretical approaches without empirical validation from experiments or the field. In future research, we plan to address this limitation by assessing the SEM using empirical data. This will involve a comprehensive comparison of outcomes derived from CB-SEM with those obtained through SEM-ANN methods. Such an empirical validation process is crucial for enhancing the overall efficiency and robustness of the proposed methodologies.Originality/valueThe established hybrid model revealed complex non-linear connections among indicators in the intricate project, enabling the recognition of primary hazards and offering direction to improve management of safety in the construction of subways.

Construct Validity and Reliability of the Effective Early Childhood Physical Literacy Pedagogue (ECE-PLP) Self-Report Instrument

ABSTRACT This study evaluated the reliability and construct validity of the 51-item Effective Early Childhood Physical Literacy Pedagogue self-report instrument (ECE-PLP) measuring Early Childhood Educators’ (ECEs) perceived physical literacy (PPL) capabilities, knowledge, and practices for effectively promoting PL in young children. 494 ECEs completed the ECE-PLP and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire self-report measure of physical activity (IPAQ-SF). Item reduction analyses resulted in the ECE-PLP containing 3 subscales and 30 items. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a five-factor solution, and weak correlations were observed between total ECE-PLP and subscale scores, and IPAQ-SF scores. Results indicated high internal consistency for total ECE-PLP scores and all subscales (α range = 0.87–0.95). Acceptable test–retest reliability was found among 44 ECEs’ total ECE-PLP scores and subscales (r range = 0.88–0.97). The final scale contained 4 subscales and 28 items. This study presents a novel instrument for ECEs, demonstrating strong internal consistency and limited support for convergent validity.

Developing a Measure of Financial Privacy: A Pilot Study of U.S. College Students

This study applied communication privacy management (CPM) theory to develop a new measure of financial privacy, encompassing three dimensions of ownership, permeability, and linkages. The exploratory factor analysis was based on a pilot survey of 371 U.S. college students. The development of this scale was motivated by previous research establishing links between financial literacy, financial socialization, and family communication patterns to suggest the importance of understanding and measuring the role of communication and privacy in the transmission of financial knowledge. Therefore, correlations are also presented between the new measure of financial privacy and measures of financial knowledge, confidence, and experience. The financial privacy scale attained adequate validity and reliability to encourage further refinement and utilization in future theoretical and practical research related to family financial socialization.

The Quintessence of public finances: Sustainability dynamics in tourism financial analysis

Tourism plays a crucial role in driving economic development, and there is a growing demand to integrate sustainability into the sector, particularly in the financial practices of governments. This study introduces the Quintessence Sustainable Tourism Public Finances (QSustainableTPF) model, which combines five established financial models commonly used in the tourism industry. The research aims to identify statistically significant relationships between these models and assess their impact on sustainability and financial performance in tourism. A quantitative methodology was employed, with data collected from financial reports and budget documents of both local and central governments, along with a survey of 2099 citizens and visitors conducted during the 2023–2024 period. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS and AMOS, incorporating exploratory factor analysis (EFA), reliability testing using Cronbach’s alpha, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The findings underscore the essential role of public finance in supporting tourism sustainability, particularly through transparent budgetary practices, efficient allocation of resources, and targeted investment in local tourism initiatives. The analysis reveals key insights into the benefits of financial transparency, citizen-centred budgeting, and the promotion of innovation in tourism finance. The interconnectedness of the five models highlights the importance of responsible public financial management in fostering tourism growth, enhancing investment, and ensuring long-term financial sustainability in the sector. The study offers practical implications for policymakers, advocating for the adoption of transparent and innovative financial practices to boost tourism development. It also recommends further research to broaden the scope across different regions, integrating additional public finance dimensions to strengthen sustainable tourism growth.

Advancing the Integrative Theory of Communication Work: Developing and Validating a Measure of Communication Work Among U.S. Adults with Chronic Illnesses

ABSTRACT It is important to theorize and observe empirically how communicative behaviors can constitute a form of labor that may take a toll on people who are already coping with a health stressor. The present investigation considers the Integrative Theory of Communication Work (ITCW) from a post-positivist paradigm, with the goal of developing a psychometrically sound communication work scale. A diverse sample of American adults with chronic health conditions was recruited to complete an online survey inquiring about their experiences with communication work during illness. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses rendered stable factor structures that fit with theoretical assumptions. This project resulted in a reliable and valid measure of communication work, and yielded preliminary quantitative evidence for the ITCW’s theorized relationships among the communication work dimensions of effort, preparation, duty, division of labor, and costs/benefits. Several avenues for future research with the new measure are proposed.

Can Sustainable Food from Edible Insects Become the Food of the Future? Exploring Poland’s Generation Z

This study addresses a research gap by examining the attitudes and interest of young Polish consumers in new foods containing insects. The results of the survey, which are presented in this article, were obtained as part of an inter-university project conducted at five Polish higher education institutions (N = 1063). The survey was conducted using the indirect interview method via an online platform (CAWI). This study aimed to assess attitudes, behaviours and intentions to purchasing insect foods, as well as factors influencing the selection of new foods containing insects and product preferences for such foods. The analysis revealed no statistically significant differentiation in consumer behaviour and declared intentions towards insect foods based on gender or place of residence (p &gt; 0.001). Our results revealed correlations between the level of neophobia and negative attitudes among young consumers towards insect products, albeit weak in nature. The exploratory factor analysis suggested that the assessment of factors influencing the purchase of insect products may be based on a small number of dimensions, which were not found to be correlated, as follows: “Health and Environmental Concern”, “Organoleptic Attributes” and “Circumstantial Influences”.

Strategies for resolving challenging psychedelic experiences: insights from a mixed-methods study

Psychedelic substances are garnering renewed interest for their potential therapeutic applications, yet the mechanisms by which challenging experiences during psychedelic use contribute to positive outcomes remains poorly understood. Here we present a mixed-methods investigation into the strategies individuals employ to navigate difficult psychedelic experiences and their relationship to emotional breakthrough. Qualitative analysis of accounts from psilocybin retreat participants (n = 16) informed the development of the Responses to Challenging Psychedelic Experiences Inventory (ReCiPE). In a subsequent online survey (n = 529), exploratory factor analysis of the ReCiPE revealed three primary response strategies: Acceptance and Reappraisal, Sensory Regulation and Physical Interaction, and Social Support and Disclosure. Exploratory correlation and multiple regression analyses demonstrated significant relationships between different types of challenges, response strategies and emotional breakthrough. Notably, Acceptance and Reappraisal, and Social Support and Disclosure strategies were positively associated with greater emotional breakthrough. Fear-related challenges were negatively associated with emotional breakthrough and involved fewer adaptive coping strategies. These findings elucidate the complex interplay between challenging experiences and adaptive responses in psychedelic contexts, offering insights for optimising therapeutic protocols and enhancing safety in both clinical and non-clinical settings.

Parental Acceptance and Understanding of Autistic Children (PAUACS) - an Instrument Development Study.

Currently there are no instruments designed to assess parents' acceptance and understanding of their autistic child. We aimed to develop and evaluate the reliability and validity of a parent-report scale assessing parents' acceptance and understanding of their autistic child - the Parental Acceptance and Understanding of Autistic Children Scale (PAUACS). A total of 158 parents (74 non-autistic, 42 autistic, 42 questioning; mean age 42.69 years) of autistic children (mean age 10.80 years) completed an online survey comprising the prototype PAUACS as well as validated measures of parental sensitivity, neurodiversity affirming attitudes, autistic traits, mental health, and child adjustment and family experience. A subsample of participants (n = 97; 61.4%) completed the PAUACS questionnaire a second time, 2 weeks later, to assess for test-retest reliability. The final 30-item scale demonstrated excellent internal reliability (α = 0.89) and test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation = 0.92). Exploratory factor analysis revealed a clean structure comprising four distinct factors: Understanding (α = 0.86), Innate (α = 0.74), Acceptance (α = 0.82), and Expectations (α = 0.73). Overall, the PAUACS demonstrates good construct validity. Preliminary evidence of convergent validity and divergent validity was demonstrated. Preliminary evidence suggests PAUACS is a reliable and valid tool in assessing parents' acceptance and understanding of autistic children.

Factor Structure and Validity of Composite Scores Resulting From a Computerized Cognitive Test Battery in Healthy Adults and Patients With Primary Brain Tumors.

Computerized neuropsychological test batteries (CNTs), such as Central Nervous System Vital Signs (CNS VS), are increasingly used for measuring cognitive functioning, but empirical evidence of how they measure cognition is scarce. We investigated the factor structure of CNS VS using exploratory factor analyses four samples: healthy adults (n = 169), patients with meningioma (392), low-grade glioma (99), and high-grade glioma (247). We tested model fit and investigated measurement invariance. Differences in factor interpretation existed between healthy participants and patients. Factor structures among patient groups were approximately the same but differed in non-zero loadings. Overall, factor structures largely did not support the "clinical domains" provided by CNS VS for clinical interpretation. Confirmatory models did not have a good fit, and measurement invariance could not be established. Our results indicate that (weighted) sum scores of CNS VS results may lack validity. We recommend researchers and clinicians to use scores on individual test measures.

Examining the Factor Structure and Validity of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21.

The prevalence of mental health disorders calls for valid and reliable instruments that are easy to administer and assess for clinicians and researchers. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) is a commonly used instrument to assess psychological distress; however, model fit and internal reliability issues have been reported. Our objective was to assess the factorial and structural validity of the DASS-21. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the full sample (n = 1036) to assess the proposed three-factor DASS-21 using a priori cut-off values. Because model fit indices were not met, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to identify a parsimonious model. The resulting three-factor structure (i.e., DASS-9) was then assessed using CFA and multigroup invariance testing procedures. The proposed three-factor DASS-21 did not meet model fit criteria. The DASS-9 did meet recommended model fit criteria and was invariant between sex, injury status, mental health diagnosis, and activity level groups. Statistically different group means were found between mental health diagnosis and activity level groups, while no differences between sex or injury status groups were found. The current study provides support to use a condensed DASS-21 instrument, such as the DASS-9. Future research is necessary to establish the DASS-9 prior to its adoption in research and clinical practice. Additionally, there is a need to identify and review all condensed versions of the DASS-21, so individuals know which instrument can be used for clinical or research purposes.

Validation of a survey instrument for understanding online teaching dexterity in higher education

ABSTRACT Online teaching competency has been treated as teachers’ ability to execute standardised online teaching roles. This does not capture teachers’ pedagogical agility for manoeuvring a variety of online teaching contexts. This study conceptualises online teaching dexterity as teachers’ technical dexterity with managing learning technologies, and their pedagogical agility to implement online learning through subject domain online teaching dexterity, dexterity over online modalities, online assessment dexterity, and dexterity for manifesting care to both students and self. Through an international survey of 163 higher education academics from New Zealand and China, this five-dimension model was validated with exploratory factor analysis. Subsequent cluster analysis identified four distinct online teaching dexterity profiles – All-rounders, Teaching-driven, Tech-driven, and Care-driven. These profiles reveal different teacher professional development needs through their relative confidence in the technical and pedagogical dimensions of online teaching dexterity. The relevance of Online Teaching Dexterity surveys to higher education practices are discussed.