Explicit Racial Bias Research Articles

Factors associated with human papillomavirus vaccination: Determining the effect of implicit and explicit racial bias and state laws around vaccination

Factors associated with human papillomavirus vaccination: Determining the effect of implicit and explicit racial bias and state laws around vaccination

Structural racism: A concept analysis

BackgroundDespite the broad agreement that structural racism is problematic, there remains significant confusion as to what structural racism means and how to research it. PurposePerform a comprehensive concept analysis of structural racism and propose an operational definition. MethodWalker and Avant’s eight-step, iterative method was used for conducting the concept analysis. FindingsStructural racism has five defining attributes: oppressive racial ideologies, dynamic state, inverse-related influence, temporality, and a false sense of “racial equity.” Structural racism has six antecedents: explicit racial bias, implicit racial bias, racial discrimination, institutional racism, cultural racism, and systemic racism. There are three consequences of structural racism: group categorization, unequal treatment, and racial inequities. DiscussionTo combat and defeat the historical and ongoing impact of structural racism, conceptual clarity must be established. Only then can an operational definition be proposed and instruments developed that correspond with the nature of structural racism.

The Effects of the 2020 BLM Protests on Racial Bias in the United States.

The 2020 Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests in response to the murder of George Floyd highlighted the lingering structural inequalities faced by Black people in the United States. In the present research, we investigated whether these protests led to reduced implicit and explicit racial bias among White U.S. Americans. Combining data from Project Implicit, Armed Conflict Location Event Data Project (ACLED), Google Trends, and the American Community survey, we observed rapid drops in implicit and explicit measures of racial bias after the onset of the protests. However, both types of racial bias slowly increased again over time as (attention to) BLM faded. We use directed acyclic graphs to show under which assumptions causal inferences are warranted. We discuss our results in light of situational models of bias, their implications for protest movements, and raise questions about when and how social norms play a role in large-scale attitude change.

Examining implicit and explicit anti-Black racial bias in children: A repeated measure design using the Function Acquisition Speed Test (FAST)

ABSTRACT Anti-Black bias involves negative evaluations of individuals from African-descendent groups. Researchers use explicit and implicit measures to detect this bias and evaluate intervention effectiveness. However, few behavior analysis studies have focused on identifying and addressing racial bias in children, and none have explored the effects of test-retest on implicit measures in this context. This study aimed to identify implicit and explicit anti-Black racial bias in children and examine the test-retest reliability of these measures over three time points. Thirty-four children (average age 8.60 years, 24 females) rated images of Black and White faces on a five-point Likert scale. The Modified Function Acquisition Speed Test (FAST), an implicit measure, assessed how fluently participants categorized Black and White faces with positive and negative images. Results showed no explicit racial bias in the sample. However, implicit measure results revealed an anti-Black bias, with 11 participants consistently displaying this bias across three repetitions. Regarding test-retest reliability, there were no significant performance differences on the implicit and explicit measures across the three repetitions. These findings suggest that the FAST is a sensitive tool for identifying racial bias in children, and the absence of test-retest effects supports its feasibility for repeated use.

Race-Conscious Teacher Coaching: Disrupting Implicit Bias and Improving Teachers’ Relationships with Black Students

ABSTRACT Racial discipline disproportionality is a persistent issue in schools with Black students experiencing exclusionary discipline two to three times more than their White peers, and Black males more likely to be diagnosed with an emotional and behavioral disorder. Interventions that target malleable root causes of disproportionality and have an explicit racial bias component may disrupt these processes. The study took place in an alternative school setting across two classrooms with White, fifth- and sixth-grade teachers (n = 2) and their Black students (n = 6). A single-case, withdrawal design (A-B-A-B) examined the impact of a semi-structured teacher coaching intervention on disrupting biases, improving classroom management and cultural competency, and ultimately improving student-teacher relationships. The coaching included Mindful STOP as a self-regulation strategy, the Mindful Reflection Protocol to discuss behaviors, and performance feedback, all focusing on outcomes related to student-teacher relationships and discipline. During intervention phases, Teacher 1 showed improvements in positive communication while keeping negative communication low. Teacher 2 showed smaller, more variable improvements. Teachers and students in both classrooms reported improvements in their relationships based on pre/post rating scales. Teacher-reported discipline outcomes were variable. These findings may provide concrete strategies for supporting the development of equitable discipline practices for Black students. Future studies will explore modifications to the current coaching package.

Trends in the Use and Discussion of Race in Pediatrics Articles Over 75 Years.

Race-based medicine, which falsely assumes that race is biological, is common in the published medical literature. We analyzed trends in the use of race in Pediatrics articles over a 75-year period. We analyzed a random sample of 50 original research articles published each decade in Pediatrics from 1948 to 2022. Of 375 articles, 39% (n = 147) included race. Among articles, 85% (n = 116) used race only to describe study subjects, 7% (n = 9) described race as a social construct, and 11% (n = 15) described race as a biological construct. Only 7% (n = 10) of studies provided a reason for including race. Statements reflective of racial bias or discrimination were identified in 22% (n = 30) of the articles that mentioned race. Although statements concerning for explicit racial bias were uncommon, with none identified in the most recent decade, statements suggestive of implicit racial bias still occurred (22%, 5 of 23). Race was presented as a dichotomy, such as "white/nonwhite," in 9% of studies (n = 12). Regarding currently nonrecommended terminology, the term "minorities" was used in 13% of studies (n = 18); 25% of studies used the term "others" (n = 34), and among these, 91% (n = 31 of 34) did not provide any definition, an occurrence that increased over time at a rate of 0.9%/year. Although there has been improvement over the past 75 years in the reporting of race in published studies in Pediatrics, significant opportunities for further improvement remain.

The Effect of Bias on Employee Suspicions of Coworker Guilt and Likelihood of Peer Reporting

ABSTRACT We explored the association between bias and the perception of a suspect’s guilt in alleged workplace theft. After presenting a case to participants, we asked them to assess the guilt of four possible suspects: two Black (male and female) and two White (male and female). We measured implicit and explicit racial and gender bias, leveraging two implicit association tests adapted from Levinson, Cai, and Young (2010) and two established explicit bias scales. We found that explicit racial bias is significantly associated with the overall perceived likelihood of guilt of the Black male suspect, and implicit racial bias is associated with the probability of selecting the Black male suspect from among the four. These associations disappeared after we provided additional facts about the case and the suspects. We further found that implicit and explicit racial biases are associated with the likelihood of peer reporting in an external investigation. Data Availability: Data are available upon request. JEL Classifications: M49.

Does Racial Bias Explain the Black-White Sentencing Gap across U.S. Courts?

Abstract It is widely speculated that prejudicial attitudes and implicit biases are fundamental to understanding racial disparities in criminal punishment. Yet surprisingly little research links measures of racial bias to data on criminal court decision-making. This article fills this gap by combining multiple aggregate measures of implicit and explicit racial bias with data from U.S. federal courts to examine whether racial disparities in sentencing are associated with prejudicial attitudes within the surrounding court context. We find no evidence that racial biases, whether implicit or explicit, significantly influence racial sentencing disparities across U.S. district courts. Nor do we find evidence that racial biases yield greater sentencing disparities in supplementary analyses using county-level court data. We do, however, find suggestive evidence that the prosecutorial application of mandatory minimums is sensitive to the level of racial bias within a court’s jurisdiction. Specifically, we find that Black defendants are disproportionately charged in districts with greater explicit racial animus.

Estimating implicit and explicit racial and ethnic bias among community pharmacists in Canada

BackgroundBias, whether implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious), can lead to preferential treatment of specific social groups and antipathy towards others. When healthcare professionals (HCPs), including pharmacists, act on these biases, patient care and health outcomes can be adversely affected. This study aims to estimate implicit and explicit racial/ethnic bias towards Black and Arab people among community pharmacists in Ontario, Canada. MethodsCommunity pharmacists participated in a secure, web-based survey using a cross-sectional design that included Harvard’s Race and Arab Implicit Association Tests (IATs) to examine bias towards Black and Arab people. Explicit (stated) preferences were measured by self-report. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. ResultsThe study surveyed 407 community pharmacists, 56.1 % of whom were women with an average age of 46.9. Implicit Association Test (IAT) results showed a statistically significant moderate preference for white people over both Black (mean IAT = 0.41) and Arab people (mean IAT = 0.35). However, most pharmacists explicitly stated that they had no racial/ethnic preference, with 75.7 % expressing a neutral preference between Black and white and 66.6 % neutral between Arab and white. However, a slight preference for white individuals was observed. Demographic factors such as age, place of birth, race/ethnicity, and experience significantly impacted IAT scores. For example, older, Canadian-born, white pharmacists with more experience displayed higher implicit bias scores. A mild correlation was found between implicit and explicit bias, indicating as implicit bias increases, explicit bias tends to become more negative. ConclusionsThis study is the first to explore the issue of pharmacist bias in Canada and concentrate on anti-Arab bias. Our findings reveal that Ontario community pharmacists tend to have an unconscious inclination towards white people, which calls for further understanding of this matter. Additionally, we discovered a moderate degree of anti-Arab bias, indicating that studies on other HCPs should consider bias against this social group. Educational interventions are needed to address the implicit biases among community pharmacists in Ontario, Canada. These findings should aim to raise self-awareness of biases, educate about the potential implications of these biases on patient care, and provide strategies to reduce bias.

Biased Opportunities: The Role of Implicit and Explicit Bias in Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment

Black and Latinx students are underrepresented in advanced placement (AP) and dual enrollment (DE), and implicit bias of educators has been discussed as one potential contributor. This study tests whether aggregate measures of implicit and explicit racial bias are related to AP and DE participation and racial/ethnic gaps in participation, controlling for contextual factors. The results indicate a relationship between implicit racial bias and disparate AP participation for Black students relative to White students, and suggestive evidence of a relationship between explicit racial bias and disparate DE participation between Black and White students. Furthermore, more explicitly biased communities have lower AP participation overall. Implications for school leaders regarding interventions to address systemic inequities in access are discussed.

Does extended experience with other-race nannies predict racial bias in the preschool years?

Most existing studies on racial bias reduction have used short-term interracial interaction interventions with fleeting effects. The current natural experiment examined whether daily interactions with other-race nannies relate to reduced racial bias in the preschool years. We capitalized on a unique child-rearing situation in Singapore whereby children are often cared for by other-race nannies since infancy. Singaporean Chinese 3- to 6-year-olds (N = 100) completed explicit and implicit racial bias measures assessing their preferential bias favoring own-race adults over adults of their nannies’ race. Differential findings were obtained for children’s explicit and implicit racial bias. Extensiveness, but not mere presence, of other-race nanny experience was associated with lower levels of explicit racial bias in children. In contrast, neither presence nor extensiveness of other-race nanny experience was associated with children’s implicit racial bias. Together, these findings suggest that long-term and extensive contact with an other-race caregiver could have subtle mitigating effects on children’s explicit, but not implicit, racial bias.

Racial Attitudes toward Black and Asian People: From Chinese International Students Perspective

Racial bias has been a controversial topic across nations, especially in Western countries. Prior western research intensively studied the racial attitudes and interracial conflicts of white, black, or other minorities. However, researchers seldomly focus their eyesight on Chinese international students, who are the minority group and temporarily reside in these countries. To address the importance of Chinese international students racial attitudes towards interracial groups and diversify feasible research data, this research used implicit methods and explicit methods to examine implicit and explicit racial attitudes among Chinese international students (N = 27 participants, 13 females and 14 males). Results found that Chinese international students displayed implicit racial preferences for Asians higher than that of Blacks, but there are no explicit racial preferences. Additionally, no correlation was found between implicit and explicit racial biases. These results provide strong evidence for the existence of implicit racial biases and point to the need to reduce these biases among international students.

Perceptions of Black and White individuals sentenced for violent and nonviolent crimes

AbstractThe US judicial system is rife with racial discrimination against Black individuals at every stage. The current study aimed to examine perceptions of individuals accused of crimes and perceptions of sentencing decisions. Furthermore, we aimed to examine whether implicit and explicit racial bias would affect these perceptions. White university students (n = 157) and noncollege adults (n = 224) viewed fictitious electronic case records for Black and White target individuals convicted of a nonviolent drug crime or a violent assault crime. They rated the targets on positive and negative traits and completed measures of explicit and implicit racial bias. Findings indicated that university student participants rated the White targets more negatively and less positively than the Black targets across both crimes. The nonuniversity sample rated the Black targets more negatively than the White targets for the violent crime. On ratings of deservingness of incarceration and fairness of the sanction, participants had similar perceptions for Black and White targets. Furthermore, participants in our studies who reported greater explicit bias also evaluated the Black target less positively, more negatively, as more violent, and as more deserving of incarceration. More negative implicit bias was significantly associated with less positive evaluations of the Black target and greater endorsement that the target deserved incarceration. These findings have implications for criminal justice and judicial reform.

The effect of implicit racial bias on right-wing populist support

This paper examines the link between implicit racial bias and right-wing populism. Using data from 41,803 participants, I explore whether implicit racial bias predicts the support of right-wing populist parties (RPP) in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The results reveal a significant association between implicit racial bias and support of RPP, even when controlling for explicit bias. Additional analyses show that the effect of implicit racial bias is especially high for participants with high levels of explicit racial bias. Participants with negative explicit racial bias are thus especially likely to support RPP if they also have high levels of negative implicit racial bias. The study also finds a significant effect for participants with no explicit racial bias, although the effect is markedly smaller.

Prevalence of Implicit Bias in Practicing Physical Therapists

Background: Implicit biases (IB) are unconscious or automatic attitudes and stereotypes that all people hold towards individuals or groups based on social group membership, categories, or traits. While implicit biases are unconscious or automatic, one is by definition more aware and conscious of their explicit biases. In the healthcare setting, implicit biases can and do impact perceptions, interactions, and clinical decision-making involving patients. Most research regarding the prevalence of implicit bias in healthcare, to date, focuses on physicians and nurses, but no evidence exists regarding implicit bias prevalence in physical therapists (PTs). Our objectives were to determine the difference, if any, between levels of race- and disability-related implicit biases using Implicit Association Test (IAT) score comparisons between PTs practicing in orthopedic and pediatric settings. Methods: A total of 59 licensed orthopedic and pediatric PTs completed the IAT race and disability subtests, self-reported levels of explicit racial and disability biases, and demographic characteristics. Results: On average, participants reported slight levels of IB favoring White over Black people despite reports of neutral explicit bias (EB). Similarly, participants reported moderate levels of IB favoring individuals without disabilities over those with disabilities despite reports of only neutral to slight EB on average. PTs practicing in pediatric settings reported significantly higher levels of race-related IB than those practicing in orthopedic settings (Wilcoxon S=623.5, p=0.014), but there was no significant difference between the levels of disability-related IB based on practices setting (Wilcoxon S= 850, p=0.245). Conclusions: This sample of PTs demonstrated rates of IB on the basis of race or disability status similar to other healthcare providers and the general population. Furthermore, participants generally rated their EBs towards racial minorities and individuals with disabilities more favorably than IAT test results indicated. The disconnect between IBs and EBs was confirmed in our study and highlights the continued need for IB awareness and subsequent bias reduction interventions for healthcare providers given the negative consequences.

Implicit Racial and Gender Bias About Handguns: A New Implicit Association Test.

This study measured implicit and explicit racial bias about women and handguns and addressed important perceptions and stereotypes about gun competence and victimization that vary based on race and gender. We administered a national survey to 1,000 US adults using a new Race-Women-Handguns Implicit Association Test (IAT). Survey weighting was used to generate nationally representative estimates on the prevalence of implicit racial bias about women with handguns. The majority of participants (62.5%) associated Black women with handguns and White women with smartphones (weighted-mean IAT = 0.252; 95% CI [0.227, 0.276]) reflecting an anti-Black bias among US adults that is stereotype consistent associating Black women with handguns and White women with smartphones. The proportion that indicated Black and White women were competent with handguns was low (21.6% and 22.4%, respectively), and the proportion of US adults who indicated Black women are more likely to experience intimate partner violence (range: 19.4%-22.9%) and sexual harassment/assault (range: 11.4%-20.4%) was low compared to the prevalence of both forms of violence US among Black women that may impact the decision to possess a handgun. These findings suggest there is an anti-Black implicit bias about women with handguns (associating Black women with handguns) among US adults and support the need for further research measuring racism in systems and structures that intersect with gun possession.

The developmental trajectories of racial categorization and explicit racial biases in Singapore

The present study investigated the development of racial categorization and explicit racial biases in Singaporean Chinese preschoolers (N = 73). Three- to six-year-olds were found to be generally adept at categorizing novel faces by race and displayed significant improvements in their racial categorization abilities at six years old. Additionally, the strength of children's racial preferences varied along the developmental trajectory. While three- and four-year-olds did not exhibit own-race preferences, five- and six-year-olds preferred to befriend own-race children and preferentially assigned desirable jobs to own-race adults. None of the age groups, however, displayed preferences for either race when assigning undesirable jobs to adults, pointing to an absence of negative outgroup bias from three to six years old. Lastly, children who were better able to categorize novel faces by race also showed stronger tendencies to assign undesirable jobs to other-race adults and thus stronger outgroup negativity. Together, our findings suggest that ingroup positivity precedes outgroup negativity, and that racial categorization plays an important role in the development of negative outgroup bias, hence providing further support for developmental theories on intergroup bias formation.

Racial bias toward children in the early childhood education setting

Racial disparities in the education setting are well-documented, including suspensions and expulsion for Black children beginning in pre-school. Racial bias has been hypothesized as a factor contributing to these disparities. However, little is known about the racial attitudes that childcare educators and staff have toward children. To describe levels of implicit and explicit racial bias toward children among early childhood educators, we measured implicit pro-White/anti-Black racial bias of teachers and staff from three urban childcare centers using the Child Race Implicit Association Test (IAT). Explicit bias was measured using a racial preference scale. Of the 48 participants in this sample, 56% were White, 29% Black, and 10% Hispanic. Although 21% ( n = 10) of participants had no racial bias on the Child Race IAT, most had implicit pro-White bias ranging from weak to strong ( n = 29%and 60%). The remaining participants had implicit pro-Black bias ranging from weak to strong ( n = 9%and 19%). In contrast, 95% of participants reported no having no explicit racial preferences toward White or Black children. Additionally, we asked participants about perceptions, knowledge, and beliefs about sources of early childhood disparities. Knowledge of bias can be used in developing strategies to mitigate bias and reduce disparities in childcare settings.

Development of a Multicomponent Intervention to Decrease Racial Bias Among Healthcare Staff.

Real or perceived discrimination contributes to lower quality of care for Black compared to white patients. Some forms of discrimination come from non-physician and non-nursing (non-MD/RN) staff members (e.g., receptionists). Utilizing the Burgess Model as a framework for racial bias intervention development, we developed an online intervention with five, 30-min modules: (1) history and effects of discrimination and racial disparities in healthcare, (2) implicit bias and how it may influence interactions with patients, (3) strategies to handle stress at work, (4) strategies to improve communication and interactions with patients, and (5) personal biases. Modules were designed to increase understanding of bias, enhance internal motivation to overcome bias, enhance emotional regulation skills, and increase empathy in patient interactions. Participants were non-MD/RN staff in nine primary care clinics. Effectiveness of the intervention was assessed using Implicit Association Test and Symbolic Racism Scale, to measure implicit and explicit racial bias, respectively, before and after the intervention. Acceptability was assessed through quantitative and qualitative feedback. Fifty-eight non-MD/RN staff enrolled. Out of these, 24 completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and were included. Among participants who reported characteristics, most were Black, with less than college education and average age of 43.2 years. The baseline implicit bias d-score was 0.22, indicating slight pro-white bias. After the intervention, the implicit bias score decreased to -0.06 (p=0.01), a neutral score indicating no pro-white or Black bias. Participant rating of the intervention, scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), for questions including whether "it was made clear how to apply the presented content in practice" and "this module was worth the time spent" was ≥4.1 for all modules. There was a decrease in implicit pro-white bias after, compared with before, the intervention. Intervention materials were highly rated.

Racial Bias Correlates with States Having Fewer Health Professional Shortage Areas and Fewer Federally Qualified Community Health Center Sites

Federally Qualified Community Health Centers (FQHCs), serving Health Professional Shortage Areas (HPSAs), are fixtures of the healthcare safety net and are central to healthcare delivery for African Americans and other marginalized Americans. Anti-African American bias, tied to anti- “welfare” sentiment and to a belief in African Americans’ supposed safety net dependency, can suppress states’ willingness to identify HPSAs and to apply for and operate FQHCs. Drawing on data from n = 1,084,553 non-Hispanic White Project Implicit respondents from 2013–2018, we investigated associations between state-level implicit and explicit racial bias and availability of FQHCs and with HPSA designations. After controlling for states’ sociopolitical conservatism, wealth, health status, and acceptance of the Affordable Care Act’s Medicaid expansion, greater racial bias was correlated with fewer FQHC delivery sites and fewer HPSA designations. White’s bias against African Americans is associated with fewer FQHC opportunities for care and fewer identifications of treatment need for African Americans and other low-income people lacking healthcare options, reflecting bias-influenced neglect.