Explain Country Differences Research Articles

Overconfidence among solo entrepreneurs: the role of national culture

PurposeThis study investigates entrepreneurial overconfidence (EOC) levels among solo entrepreneurs at the country level. Although transitions from solo to employer entrepreneur are relatively rare, the solo self-employed have become an important source of potential job creation by virtue of the sharp increase in their numbers in the past two decades. When EOC levels are too high, job creation ambitions may be unrealistic and unrealised. Unrealised ambitions and business failure can lead not only to psychological and financial costs for the individual entrepreneurs involved, but at the societal level also to wasted government resources, and increased costs for the entrepreneurial ecosystem as a whole. Therefore, it is important to know more about the entrepreneurial overconfidence levels of solo entrepreneurs in different countries and their determinants.Design/methodology/approachUsing Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data for 71 countries over the period 2013–2016, the authors construct a new measure of entrepreneurial overconfidence of solo entrepreneurs and relate this to three recently developed indicators of national culture.FindingsThe findings indicate that EOC levels are positively related to Joy (versus Duty), and negatively related to Trust (versus Distrust). Finally, no significant relationship between entrepreneurial overconfidence and Individualism is found in the study (versus Collectivism).Research limitations/implicationsGiven the lack of literature examining the relationship between EOC levels and cultural variables hypotheses were developed using the existent body of knowledge in the area, which is at the early stage of development. The hypotheses derivation has used mostly theoretical arguments relating to the link between national culture and overconfidence of entrepreneurs in general, rather than relating specifically to solo entrepreneurs. The measure of EOC uses expectations of employment growth to proxy overconfidence, but other measures of entrepreneurial success may also be explored.Practical implicationsAs the hiring of employees can be a costly process (Coad et al., 2017), it is important that entrepreneurs have realistic expectations of what it requires to hire employees. This is especially the case for solo entrepreneurs since they do not have experience of hiring their own employees. This paper addresses such issues at an aggregate level by exploring what factors explain country differences in overconfidence levels of solo entrepreneurs.Social implicationsIt is worthwhile to distinguish between solo and employer entrepreneurs when studying their EOC levels, as the ambitions of these two types of entrepreneurs are different. Empirically, this study introduces a new measure of EOC tailored towards the solo self-employed.Originality/valueThis study contributes to entrepreneurship literature by expanding current knowledge on entrepreneurial overconfidence at the country level. Past research has studied EOC at the individual level, however limited research exists on the phenomenon of EOC from a country level perspective. This is important as unrealised entrepreneurial ambitions may not only create substantial costs for the individual entrepreneurs involved, it may also lead to substantial societal costs, including waste of government resources.

Country and policy factors influencing the implementation of primary care-based alcohol screening: A comparison of Colombia, Mexico and Peru

ABSTRACT Researchers and practitioners recognise the importance of context when implementing healthcare interventions, but the influence of wider environment is rarely mapped. This paper identifies the country and policy-related factors potentially explaining the country differences in outcomes of an intervention focused on improving detection and management of heavy alcohol use in primary care in Colombia, Mexico and Peru. Qualitative data obtained through interviews, logbooks and document analysis are used to explain quantitative data on number of alcohol screenings and screening providers in each of the countries. Existing alcohol screening standards in Mexico, and policy prioritisation of primary care and consideration of alcohol as a public health issue in Colombia and Mexico positively contributed to the outcome, while the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact. In Peru, the context was unsupportive due to a combination of: political instability amongst regional health authorities; lack of focus on strengthening primary care due to the expansion of community mental health centres; alcohol considered as an addiction rather than a public health issue; and the impact of COVID-19 on healthcare. We found that wider environment-related factors interacted with the intervention implemented and can help explain country differences in outcomes.

Parent-reported quality of life in children with cochlear implants differs across countries.

Pediatric cochlear implantation affects communication skills and quality of life, specifically how children interact with others and feel about themselves. Numerous studies worldwide examine well-being among pediatric cochlear implant users, but none to date compare condition-specific quality of life across countries. This retrospective study compares parent-reported cochlear implant-specific quality of life summary data across 14 published studies spanning 11 countries and 9 languages. Sample size ranged from 7 to 370 participants, and children across studies varied in mean chronologic age (3.1–12.2 years), implantation age (1.5–4.6 years), and cochlear implant experience (1.3–8.2 years). Parents completed the Children with Cochlear Implants: Parental Perspectives (CCIPP) questionnaire, an instrument assessing parent-reported cochlear implant-specific quality of life, in their home language. Analysis of variance tests were run for each CCIPP subscale across studies using summary data to determine significant differences between published manuscripts. Across countries, parents of children with cochlear implants appraise communication, social relations, and self-reliance most positively, and the effects of implantation and supporting the child least positively. Cross-country analyses revealed a significant effect of study (country) on quality of life ratings in each domain, with the largest differences in the communication domain. Limited access to implant-related accommodations, cultural awareness of hearing loss, and varying parent expectations may explain country differences in parental ratings of quality of life. Culturally sensitive psychoeducation for the entire family may foster improved life satisfaction for pediatric cochlear implant users and their families.

Place of death and associated factors in 12 Latin American countries: A total population study using death certificate data.

BackgroundLittle is known about place of death in Latin America, although this data are crucial for health system planning. This study aims to describe place of death and associated factors in Latin America and to identify factors that contribute to inter-country differences in place of death.MethodsWe conducted a total population observational study using death certificates of the total annual decedent populations in 12 countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay) for the most recent available year (2016, 2017, or 2018). Data were analysed regarding place of death and multivariable logistic regression with place of death as the dependent variable was used to examine associated clinical and sociodemographic factors (independent variables) in each of the countries.ResultsThe total study sample was 2 994 685 deaths; 31.3% of deaths occurred at home, and 57.6% in hospitals. A strong variation was found among the countries with home deaths ranging from 20% (Brazil) to 67.9% (Guatemala) and hospital deaths from 22.3% (Guatemala) to 69.5% (Argentina). These differences between countries remained largely unchanged after controlling for sociodemographic factors and causes of death. The likelihood of dying at home was consistently higher with increasing age, for those living in a rural area, and for those with a lower educational level (except in Argentina).ConclusionsMost deaths in Latin America occur in hospitals, with a strong variation between countries. As clinical and sociodemographic factors included in this study did not explain country differences, other factors such as policy and health care system seem to have a crucial impact on where people die in Latin America.

Culture and corruption: An experimental comparison of cultural patterns on the corruption propensity in Poland and Russia

The development of effective anti-corruption measures relies on a sound understanding of underlying country-specific cultural patterns of corruption. However, finding these patterns faces the problem of ecological fallacies when tracing back the results of comparative macro-studies to the national level or of using ex-post explanations for cultural variances in experimental research designs. Thus, we ask how cultural patterns can explain country differences in the propensity to act corrupt without neglecting the aforementioned problems. Based on institutional theory, we model path-dependent cultural patterns at the macro, meso and micro levels promoting propensity to act corrupt in Poland and Russia. The results of experimental data gathered from students in Poland and Russia show that the extent to which legal nihilism and ethical dualism are institutionalized at the macro level, as well as the micro factors of gender-specific socialization and studying law, has a significant effect on the propensity to act corrupt.

Moving beyond opportunity narratives in COVID-19 green recoveries: A comparative analysis of public investment plans in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom

This article makes two contributions to the COVID-related green recovery literature, which is dominated by optimistic and speculative opportunity narratives. Mobilising insights from political science theories, our conceptual contribution is to suggest that green recovery analyses should focus not only on the opportunities (‘permissive conditions’) created by the COVID-crisis, but also on the actions and strategic considerations (‘productive conditions’) and pre-existing contexts (‘critical antecedents’) that shape the exploitation of these opportunities. Our empirical contribution is to analyse actual green recovery spending plans of three leading countries (France, Germany, and the UK), focusing on the size, sectoral allocation, and implementation choices, which differ markedly. France spends the most, both in absolute and GDP-relative terms, followed by Germany. UK spending is 43% less than France. The UK and France mostly support existing sectors (buildings, railways), while Germany focuses 57.8% of its funding on new technologies (electric vehicles, hydrogen). We explain country differences by analysing different mixes of strategic considerations, including climate mitigation, jobs, GDP growth, productivity, exports, global competitiveness, regional support, social fairness, party politics, and electoral ambitions. We relate these different motivations to pre-existing context conditions such as varying socio-economic effects of the COVID-crisis, pre-existing concerns (e.g., high unemployment, social and regional inequalities), the economic importance of particular sectors, and pre-existing climate policy plans. We conclude that the green recovery plans are powerfully shaped by pre-existing contexts, plans and developments, which constrain the use of the crisis-induced opportunities.

Meritocracy beliefs and intolerance towards wealth inequality among higher subjective social status Filipinos (Creencias meritocráticas e intolerancia ante la desigualdad económica entre la población filipina de nivel socioeconómico subjetivo alto)

ABSTRACT As people’s concerns about wealth inequality have not grown even as warnings are raised about its negative impact on societies and individuals, research has inquired into factors that influence people’s tolerance towards wealth inequalities. Previous research has shown that higher social position and meritocracy beliefs tend to reduce concern for wealth inequality. Two studies seek to replicate these findings in the Philippines, a country which reports high levels of tolerance for inequality but which does not fit models that explain country differences in tolerance for inequality. In Study 1, survey data showed meritocracy beliefs were negatively related to intolerance towards wealth inequality; this relationship was found only among higher subjective social class Filipinos. In Study 2, an experiment found that priming meritocracy reduced intolerance towards wealth inequality in a sample of higher social class Filipino. Results provide country-specific evidence on the inequality-legitimizing effects of meritocracy on higher subjective social class Filipinos’ attitudes towards wealth inequality.

Place of Death and Associated Factors in 12 Latin American Countries: A Total Population Study Using Death Certificate Data

Background: Little is known about place of death in Latin America although this data is crucial for health system planning. This paper aims to describe place of death and associated factors in Latin America and to identify factors that contribute to inter-country differences in place of death. Methods: We conducted a total population observational study using death certificates of the total annual decedent populations in 12 countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay). Data were analyzed regarding place of death and multivariable logistic regression was used to examine associated clinical and sociodemographic factors in each of the countries. Findings: Total study population was 3,001,640 deaths; 31·3% of deaths occurred at home, and 57·6% in hospitals. A strong variation was found between the countries with home deaths ranging from 20% (Brazil) to 65·5% (Guatemala) and hospital deaths from 24·8% (Guatemala) to 69·5% (Argentina). These differences between countries remained largely unchanged after controlling for sociodemographic factors and causes of death. The likelihood of dying at home was consistently higher with increasing age, for those living in a rural area, and for those with a lower educational level (except in Argentina). Interpretation: Most deaths in Latin America occur in hospitals, with a strong variation between countries. As clinical and sociodemographic factors included in this study did not explain country differences, other factors such as policy and healthcare system seem to have a crucial impact on where people die in Latin America. Funding Information: No funding was received in the course of this study. Declaration of Interests: We declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: The project was approved by the Ethics committee of RWTH Aachen University (EK 206/19).

Linked lives, linked retirement? Relative income differences within couples and gendered retirement decisions in Europe.

Our article investigates the role of relative income distributions within couples for individuals' retirement risks. It addresses the following questions: How does the share someone provides to the couple income affect that person's retirement decision? What gender differences do we observe and what contextual factors can explain country differences? Our multilevel analyses draw on data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) study (2010-2016), comparing 26 countries. The results show that female main earners transition to retirement earlier than female secondary earners as they approach the official retirement age. This effect is even stronger in countries with more traditional gender norms. The opposite pattern is found for men, whereby male secondary earners retire earlier than male main earners in more gender traditional societies. We explain this finding on the basis of doing gender theories, which predict that gender-atypical behaviour in one area of life is compensated by traditional gender behaviour in other areas, especially in contexts with traditional gender norms. A further finding relates to the generosity of the country's pension replacement rate, which shows to be a factor facilitating retirement especially for those with an equal earning partner.

Gastric Cancer Mortality Trends in the Southern Cone: Disentangling age, period and cohort patterns in Argentina and Chile

Although Argentina and Chile are neighboring countries, gastric cancer (GC) is the first cancer death cause in the Chilean male population, while it is ranked in fifth place for Argentinean males. This study is the first to identify the differential time-patterns associated with the age-period-cohort effects for the last few decades (1990–2015) in these Southern Cone countries. Trends of age-standardized truncated mortality rates (ASMR) for GC were analyzed using log-linear Poisson age-period-cohort models, including cubic splines for each component. The ASMR trends for GC decreased in both sexes but more considerably in Chile and more favorably for males (annual percentage changes 2002–2015 = −3.5, 95%CI: −3.9 to −3.1). Moreover, GC age-specific mortality rates were noticeably higher in Chile. A favorable decreasing mortality risk throughout the periods (from 2000) and by cohort was observed for both countries; however, the risk reduction has stabilized in younger female cohorts since 1950-cohort. In conclusion, overall favorable decreasing trends for GC mortality were found; however, when age-period-cohort effects were disentangled, Chile and younger female cohorts showed a more unfavorable scenario. Obesity, lifestyles, and environmental conditions (like altitude) may explain country differences. This analytical approach may be a valuable tool to be replicated in other countries with no population-based cancer registries and acceptable mortality data quality.

A Critical Perspective on Ageism and Modernization Theory

Modernization theory has often been used to explain country differences in levels of ageism. The commentary at hand questions its usefulness in the analysis of ageism today for two reasons. First, modernization theory was developed to discuss social status of older people, not ageism. Second, social policies and management practices that emerged with industrialization are being rolled back over the last decades. We therefore argue for the reconsideration of the relationship between modernization and ageism and to re-assess it in order to better explain country differences in ageism in the 21st century.

Solidarity with refugees across Europe. A comparative analysis of public support for helping forced migrants

ABSTRACTThe major influx of refugees to Europe, especially in 2015, has led to immense solidarity, but also hostility among European citizens. In the wake of the so-called ‘refugee crisis’ country differences in the willingness to help displaced people have become a salient issue of European integration. In this paper, we explain country differences in the public support for helping refugees across Europe at a critical time-point – spring 2016 – just after the influx of displaced people had peaked. Theoretically, we base our explanation of country differences on economic threat, inter-group contact, welfare state, and political framing theories. Using data from a Eurobarometer survey across the 28 EU member states, we show that solidarity with refugees varies significantly between countries. Controlling for individual characteristics of respondents and utilizing a multilevel design, we find that solidarity with refugees is highest in countries with an extensive welfare state and a historically high share of immigrants, whereas there is no effect of countries’ economic situation or strength of right-wing parties. On the individual level of respondents, however, we find that people with a more precarious economic background, little institutional trust, and a right-wing political orientation express lower solidarity with refugees.

Attitudes and behavioral intentions to protect the environment: How consistent is the structure of environmental concern in cross-national comparison?

This article deals with the consistency of the attitudinal structure of environmental concern in cross-national comparison using structural equation models (SEM) with International Social Survey Program (ISSP) 2010 data. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis is used to explore measurement invariance and to test the cross-national consistency of the relationship between environmental attitudes and the willingness to sacrifice for environmental protection (which can be interpreted as a behavioral intention). Both are referred to as being dimensions of environmental concern. Multilevel SEM is conducted to explain country differences regarding levels of consistency between the two dimensions of environmental concern. The results of the multiple group confirmatory factor analysis show that it is possible to reach metric measurement invariance for both dimensions of environmental concern. Further, the consistency (i.e., the strength of statistical association) between these two dimensions differs considerably throughout the world. Multilevel SEM analysis shows that the consistency is associated with national wealth; that is, the higher the national wealth, the stronger the relationship between the two dimensions of environmental concern. Thus, in poor countries, there is only a weak link between environmental attitudes and behavioral intentions to protect the environment. In contrast, in wealthy countries, environmental attitudes and environmental behavioral intentions form a highly consistent cluster of environmental concern.

Labour force activity after 65: what explain recent trends in Denmark, Germany and Sweden?

In most OECD member countries labour force attachment, has increased in recent years not only in the age groups 60–64 years but also among people 65 years and older. Focus in this paper is on the trend in older workers’ labour force participation in Denmark, Germany and Sweden since 2004. Main emphasis is given to people aged 65–69 years eligible for social security retirement programs from age 65. The gender aspect is included to accommodate different trends for women and men. To explain country differences in trends, the importance of changes in retirement policies of relevance for this age group and cohort relevant changes in education and health is examined and discussed. Further, country differences in the impact from education and health is examined. Results show that the largest increase in labour force participation among people aged 65–69 years has taken place in Sweden following by Germany, while the increase in Denmark is rather small. While the increase in Germany mainly seems to be a result of policy reforms, the increase in Sweden appear to be a result of a combination of policy changes and an increasing educational level. Financial incentives seem most important in Germany and only of minor importance in Denmark, where policy changes directed towards individuals above the age of 65 appear to have been too small so far to affect retirement behaviour significantly.

The Division of Inter-Vivos Parental Transfers in Europe

This paper explores the patterns of the division of inter-vivos financial transfers from old parents to adult children in a sample of 14 European countries drawn from two waves of the Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe. Contrary to previous research mostly focused in US, this study finds a higher frequency of parents that equally divide their financial transfers among their adult children. On average, 36% of European parents divide equally. These results sharply contrast with approximately 6.4%-9.2% of American parents that divide equally. It is possible that altruistic parents are also concerned with a norm of equal division, and therefore they do not fully offset the differences of income among their children as predicted by the standard model of altruism. The econometric results show that parents are more likely to give equal transfers if, in their view, income inequality among their children is not too high. Furthermore, the analysis is extended by adding variables at the country level. In this regard, income inequality, pension expenditures, the societal level of altruism and inheritance taxes are key to explain country differences.

Modelling European usage of renewable energy technologies for electricity generation

For fourteen European countries, we model the usage of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in electricity generation within a multi-country growth curve framework. We consider a range of covariates as possible determinants of the differences in growth rates of RET usage between countries and over time. An effective way of capturing the differences between the countries is their division into four groups: slow, normal, fast and very fast growth. This division has more explanatory power than other binary variables such as the use of different incentive schemes. No evidence that changes in the price of fossil fuels (represented by oil) explained changes in the growth of RET usage over time was found. The model developed is evaluated by its accuracy in both point forecasting and density forecasting and it is used to provide forecasts of RET usage up to 2020. Greece and Belgium are identified as the two countries least likely to reach a given threshold for the proportion of RET generated electricity in 2020. • Model usage of renewable energy in electricity generation for 14 European countries • Use multi-country growth curve to explain differences between countries/over time • Latitude, carbon free generation, country clusters help explain country differences • No evidence that changes in oil price of fossil fuels explained changes over time • Model used to provide forecasts up to 2020 — Greece and Belgium lagging

Country Differences in Material Deprivation inEurope

This paper assesses to what extent differences in the characteristics of individuals (micro‐level perspective) and country‐specific factors (macro‐level perspective) can explain country differences with respect to material deprivation levels. Thus, our work aims to simultaneously consider the macro dimension and the predominantly individually‐oriented study field of material deprivation using multilevel techniques. We make use of theEuropeanUnionStatistics onIncome andLivingConditions. Our results show that country‐specific factors seem to be much more relevant than individual effects in explaining country differences in material deprivation. We estimate that the introduction of country‐specific factors reduces the proportion of total variance due to between‐country differences in deprivation by 72.7 percent, while individual‐level variables reduce this proportion by only 9.4 percent. We also show, through interaction variables, that the effect of sociodemographic characteristics can be shaped by institutional and structural factors, especially by the level ofGDP.

The Missing Link: Deficits of Country-Level Studies. A Review of 22 Articles Explaining Life Satisfaction

To explain country differences in an analytical or structural dependent variable, the application of a macro–micro-model containing contextual hypotheses is necessary. Our methodological study examines whether empirical studies apply such a model. We propose that a theoretical base for country differences is well described in multilevel studies, but aggregate and individual data analyses fail to specify contextual hypotheses ex ante (in the theory section of an article) and instead elaborate on macro–micro explanations ex post (in the discussion section). To test our assumptions, we analyzed 22 studies published in journals cited in the Social Science Citation Index between 2007 and 2010, which compare countries with respect to life satisfaction. Results are in accordance with our expectations. We conclude that cross-country comparisons should apply a macro–micro-model theoretically and empirically, if possible, and include the meso level, if appropriate. In case of insufficient data (i. e. only individual level or aggregate level data), applying a macro–micro-model theoretically may prevent premature conclusions.

Perceived Job Quality: Autonomy and Job Security within a Multi-Level Framework

In this study, we examine the relationship between institutions of labour market and welfare states and two central aspects of job quality: autonomy and job security. Drawing on theoretical frameworks from varieties of capitalism and a power resource approach, we examine whether macro-level features can explain country differences in perceived autonomy and job security. In multi-level analyses, we combine institutional data with data from the European Social Survey (ESS), which contains information on 13,414 employees from 19 countries. We report three main findings: first, we find high autonomy in the Nordic countries and low autonomy and job security in transition countries; second, the institutional features-union density and skill specificity-are positively associated with autonomy; third, unemployment rate is the most important factor in explaining country differences in perceived job security. Our findings suggest that the power of workers and their skill specificity are important in explaining cross-country differences in autonomy. The study shows that a multi-level approach may help explain how institutions shape employment outcomes.

An Empirical Evaluation of R&D–Marketing NPD Integration in Chinese Firms: The Guanxi Effect

Research examining new product development (NPD) practices recognizes the importance of research and development (R&D)–marketing integration to performance. Although a plethora of work has been carried out in the R&D–marketing domain, including Chinese firms, the study of cross‐country contexts has relied on country type as the demarcation to explain country differences. No specific cultural elements inherent in the respective countries have been examined. In the case of China, this study introduces the cultural more of guanxi. Seen as an alternative to formal institutionalized interactions, guanxi characterizes the bond between people in Chinese society. To date, the construct of guanxi has received scant attention in NPD literature. The present study examines whether guanxi affects the nature of R&D–marketing integration in Chinese firms. This work is carried out to infer whether specific cultural mores play a role in influencing R&D–marketing integration versus just recognizing a country context. A quantitative survey‐based method was adopted to address the research objectives. The sample comprised Chinese high‐technology (specifically information technology [IT]) organizations, which were managed by Chinese nationals with headquarters physically located in China. Many Chinese‐based IT companies have indigenous R&D departments and are embarking on radical and incremental new‐to‐the‐market product development. Pretest qualitative data were collected through telephone and respondent interviews. The final questionnaire was sent to target senior managers, resulting in a sample comprising 100 marketing and 100 R&D personnel. Study measures were developed, and factor analysis was applied to the NPD integration items. Correlation and logistic regression analyses were employed. The findings identify particular aspects of integration practices between Chinese R&D and marketing managers that differ from the West in light of the significant effect reflected by the guanxi construct. The results show that reliance on informal social systems, through guanxi, can act as a significant support for integration in certain activity areas and that guanxi can influence integration in mid‐ to late‐phase activities. This study's findings suggest that guanxi can act as a unifying force in underdeveloped processes (e.g., NPD) and may, paradoxically, reinforce acceptance of formalized structures. It appears that guanxi is highly utilized to make up for the deficiencies of formal external institutional structures (e.g., regulatory and legal specifications). These findings suggest that where the basis for guanxi exists, traditional and culturally derived interpersonal relationships still impact the way people work together. The results of this research provide new knowledge of how guanxi positively influences the integration of R&D and marketing departments as well as successful NPD performance. Guanxi may underlie how R&D–marketing integration is facilitated in China. The study's findings provide a finer understanding of why Chinese firms may reflect different R&D–marketing integration practices. Managerial and research implications are presented in the paper.