Experienced Cyclists Research Articles

Changes in cortical activity measured with EEG during a high-intensity cycling exercise.

This study investigated the effects of a high-intensity cycling exercise on changes in spectral and temporal aspects of electroencephalography (EEG) measured from 10 experienced cyclists. Cyclists performed a maximum aerobic power test on the first testing day followed by a time-to-exhaustion trial at 85% of their maximum power output on 2 subsequent days that were separated by ∼48 h. EEG was recorded using a 64-channel system at 500 Hz. Independent component (IC) analysis parsed the EEG scalp data into maximal ICs. An equivalent current dipole model was calculated for each IC, and results were clustered across subjects. A time-frequency analysis of the identified electrocortical clusters was performed to investigate the magnitude and timing of event-related spectral perturbations. Significant changes (P < 0.05) in electrocortical activity were found in frontal, supplementary motor and parietal areas of the cortex. Overall, there was a significant increase in EEG power as fatigue developed throughout the exercise. The strongest increase was found in the frontal area of the cortex. The timing of event-related desynchronization within the supplementary motor area corresponds with the onset of force production and the transition from flexion to extension in the pedaling cycle. The results indicate an involvement of the cerebral cortex during the pedaling task that most likely involves executive control function, as well as motor planning and execution.

The acute testosterone, growth hormone, cortisol and interleukin-6 response to 164-km road cycling in a hot environment

This study investigated the acute endocrine responses to a 164-km road cycling event in a hot environment. Thirty-four male experienced cyclists (49.1 ± 8.3 years, 86.8 ± 12.5 kg, 178.1 ± 5.1 cm) participating in a 164-km road cycling event were recruited. Blood samples were collected within 0.3–2.0 h before the start (PRE: ~0500–0700 h) and immediately following the ride (POST). Samples were analysed for testosterone, growth hormone (GH), cortisol and interleukin-6 (IL-6). The temperature and humidity during the event were 35.3 ± 4.9°C and 47.2 ± 14.0%, respectively. Based on the finishing time, results for the fastest (FAST, 305 ± 10 min) and the slowest (SLOW, 467 ± 31 min) quartiles were compared. At POST, testosterone concentration was significantly (P < 0.05) lower (PRE, 20.8 ± 8.6; POST, 18.2 ± 6.7 nmol · L−1), while GH (PRE, 0.3 ± 0.1; POST, 2.3 ± 0.3 µg · L−1), cortisol (PRE, 661 ± 165; POST, 1073 ± 260 nmol · L−1) and IL-6 (PRE, 4.0 ± 3.4; POST, 22.4 ± 15.2 pg · mL−1) concentrations were significantly higher than those at PRE. At POST, GH and cortisol were significantly higher for the FAST group than for the SLOW group (GH, 3.6 ± 2.0 and 1.0 ± 0.8 µg · L−1; cortisol, 1187 ± 209 and 867 ± 215 nmol · L−1). Participation in an ultra-endurance road cycling event in a hot environment induced significant acute changes in concentrations of circulating hormones, with a greater augmentation of GH and cortisol in those completing the ride fastest.

Unique muscularity in cyclists' thigh and trunk: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study.

This study examined the influence of regular training in competitive cycling on individual muscle volume of the thigh and psoas major cross-sectionally and longitudinally. T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images of the trunk and right thigh were obtained from eight experienced varsity male cyclists (experience: > 4 years) and 10 untrained men (experiment 1), and from 12 (10 males, two females) varsity cyclists before and after competitive cycling training for 6 months (experiment 2). From the MR images, the volumes of each of the quadriceps femoris and hamstrings, total adductors, gracilis, sartorius, and psoas major were determined. The volumes of the monoarticular thigh muscles, semitendinosus, and psoas major muscles were significantly greater in the experienced cyclists than in the untrained men (experiment 1), and increased significantly after the competitive training for 6 months (experiment 2). In contrast, the volumes of the other biarticular thigh muscles were similar among the experienced cyclists and untrained men (experiment 1), and did not change by competitive cycling training (experiment 2). The results indicate that competitive cycling training induces muscle-specific hypertrophy of the synergistic muscles, especially between the monoarticular and biarticular muscles, leading to quantitative profiles of the musculature in experienced cyclists.

Bone Mineral Density Not Significantly Changed By Cycling Across The United States

PURPOSE: Little is known about the physiological responses and adaptations to cross-country cycling. To wit, studies show that experienced cyclists may demonstrate osteoporosis in the spine, associated with many years of training accompanied by little or no weight bearing of the axial skeleton. However, the ways in which high cycling mileage may affect the health of axial skeleton among novice cyclists has not been studied. Greater understanding of this issue is needed, as long distance cycling has increased in popularity in recent years. This study explored the effects of 60 days of cycling upon the bone mineral density (BMD) and body mass composition (BMC) of novice cyclists, who rode across the United States to raise awareness of Alzheimer’s disease. METHODS: Five novice cyclists (21.0.2 ± 0.71 yr, 187.842 ± 6.50 cm, 82.84 ± 5.42 kg) completed laboratory testing prior to and after the cross-country trek. Each visited the laboratory on two occasions, 60 days apart. Each completed a DEXA scan, and the following measures of BMD were assessed: whole body, femoral head, femoral neck, and lumbar region. BMC was also assessed using DEXA technology. Paired t-tests were used for statistical analysis; the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was also used due to the small sample size available for this study. RESULTS: Non-significant differences were found pre- and post-ride for the following measures of BMD: whole body (t(4) = -0.177, p = 0.868), femoral head (t(4) = 0.382, p = 0.722), femoral neck (t(4) = 0.498, p = 0.545), and lumbar region t(4) = 0.808, p = 0.465. Measures for femoral head, femoral neck, and lumbar region were decreased following the ride across the country. Significant differences for BMC were found between the following measures: left arm lean mass (t(4) = 3.841, p = 0.018), left arm total mass ( t(4) = 4.200, p = 0.014), right arm fat percentage (t(4) = -3.048), p = 0.038). All other measures of regional and total body BMC were not significantly different. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest non-significant changes in BMD occurred among these cyclists. These participants also demonstrated changes in upper extremity BMC measures. These findings suggest that BMD and BMC measures may change in relatively short time frames. More study is needed on the impact of prolonged cycling on BMD among novice cyclists.

Bicycle rider control skills: expertise and assessment

Research on how human balance and control bicycles are inconclusive, largely due to the small number of participants in the previous studies. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the hypotheses that 1) cycling lateral deviation amplitude will reliably show differences between more and less experienced cyclists and 2) more experienced will exhibit slower and smaller steering motions compared to the less experienced cyclists. Twenty-eight experienced and inexperienced cyclists rode a bicycle in a straight line. Lateral deviation, steering and roll were measured. Intersession reliability of the deviation was high with Cronbach’s alpha values higher than 0.75. The amplitude, variability and rate of steering and roll parameters showed statistically significant differences between the groups. The test used in this study is sensitive to detect differences between more and less experienced cyclists and can be used for further research that aims to test the effect of a specific intervention addressing rider control. We also showed that steering and roll angle, which were described before as two of the main motor control actions in bicycle control, differ in the variability, amplitude and rate between more and less experienced cyclists. The results of the present study have practical implications for improving bicycle rider control and increasing the safety of cyclists.

A hybrid-choice latent-class model for the analysis of the effects of weather on cycling demand

In this paper we analyze demand for cycling using a discrete choice model with latent variables and a discrete heterogeneity distribution for the taste parameters. More specifically, we use a hybrid choice model where latent variables not only enter into utility but also inform assignment to latent classes. Using a discrete choice experiment we analyze the effects of weather (temperature, rain, and snow), cycling time, slope, cycling facilities (bike lanes), and traffic on cycling decisions by members of Cornell University (in an area with cold and snowy winters and hilly topography). We show that cyclists can be separated into two segments based on a latent factor that summarizes cycling skills and experience. Specifically, cyclists with more skills and experience are less affected by adverse weather conditions. By deriving the median of the ratio of the marginal rate of substitution for the two classes, we show that rain deters cyclists with lower skills from bicycling 2.5 times more strongly than those with better cycling skills. The median effects also show that snow is almost 4 times more deterrent to the class of less experienced cyclists. We also model the effect of external restrictions (accidents, crime, mechanical problems) and physical condition as latent factors affecting cycling choices.

The club-level road cyclist: injury, pain, and performance.

The aims of this study were to (1) examine riding habits of injured cyclists, (2) identify factors related to seeking medical treatment, (3) investigate performance of recreational road cyclists compared with established norms regarding strength and flexibility measures, and (4) propose cycling-specific injury risk factors. Observational and prospective study. Cycling store and bicycle distribution company. Sixty-three experienced road cyclists. Initial data collection included a questionnaire. A 2-week training diary and 8 weekly follow-up injury questionnaires were also collected. Training habits and injury history, bike fit, flexibility, and isometric, dynamic, and plyometric strength measures. Participants were likely to have an injury at baseline, and chronic pain was common. Cyclists trained for an equal quantity of time irrespective of experiencing pain. Injury severity in terms of pain level and participant age were factors in seeking medical care. Our participants performed poorly on our testing protocol compared with available norms. Flexibility, strength, and bike fit measures did not predict injury. Previous injury predicted prospective injury. The knee and lumbar region were most frequently injured. Cycling is a sport in which injury risk and prevention need to be further studied. Cyclists are frequently injured but continue to participate in cycling at volumes equal to their healthy peers. This study outlines a clinically reproducible cyclist assessment and discusses behaviors common to the cycling patient.

Fitness level impacts salivary antimicrobial protein responses to a single bout of cycling exercise.

Salivary antimicrobial proteins (sAMPs) protect the upper respiratory tract (URTI) from invading microorganisms and have been linked with URTI infection risk in athletes. While high training volume is associated with increased URTI risk, it is not known if fitness affects the sAMP response to acute exercise. This study compared the sAMP responses to various exercising workloads of highly fit experienced cyclists with those who were less fit. Seventeen experienced cyclists (nine highly fit; eight less fit) completed three 30-min exercise trials at workloads corresponding to -5, +5 and +15 % of the individual blood lactate threshold. Saliva samples were collected pre- and post-exercise to determine the concentration and secretion of α-amylase, human neutrophil proteins 1-3 (HNP1-3) lactoferrin, LL-37, lysozyme, and salivary SIgA. The concentration and/or secretion of all sAMPs increased post-exercise, but only α-amylase was sensitive to exercise workload. Highly fit cyclists had lower baseline concentrations of α-amylase, HNP1-3, and lactoferrin, although secretion rates did not differ between the groups. Highly fit cyclists did, however, exhibit greater post-exercise increases in the concentration and/or secretion of a majority of measured sAMPs (percentage difference between highly fit and less fit in parentheses), including α-amylase concentration (+107 %) and secretion (+148 %), HNP1-3 concentration (+97 %) and secretion (+158 %), salivary SIgA concentration (+181 %), lactoferrin secretion (+209 %) and LL-37 secretion (+138 %). We show for the first time that fitness level is a major determinant of exercise-induced changes in sAMPs. This might be due to training-induced alterations in parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activation.

An online survey using social media investigating the use of kinesiology type tape and McConnell type tape with clinicians who treat cycling related knee pain

Background: The Tour de France will undoubtedly showcase various cycling related injuries in its Yorkshire opening stages in 2014. Patello-Femoral Pain (PFP) is responsible for over 25% of all road cycling injuries and over 65% of injuries in the lower limb (Callaghan, 2005: Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 9, 226-236). Alongside trauma related pain it remains the main injury affecting experienced and elite cyclists and is commonly treated using taping (broadly categorised into McConnell and kinesiology type tape - KTT). To date it is unknown as to the extent and rationale behind the use of tape in cycling related knee pain. Purpose: To determine clinicians’ current use of taping in elite and experienced cyclists with cycling related knee pain in order to inform a 3D motion analysis study into current taping techniques. To date very little work has been undertaken in this area and although it is presumed that taping is used extensively throughout cycling, it is unknown as to how much it is actually used and the rationale behind its use. Methods: An online survey (Survey Monkey™) determined current taping techniques used by clinicians treating elite and experienced cyclists. A preferred taping application was determined and reported from a choice of 4 (fig 1). Data were collected from clinicians (n=30), identified as having an area of special clinical interest in cycling related knee pain within the target group. Recruitment was predominantly through the social network Twitter™. Data collected included; treatment methods, clinical taping usage, specific applications, perceived effectiveness of treatment, clinical rationale, formal training, clinical importance and outcome measures. Results: The data collected indicated a clear preference from clinicians for the use of KTT (figure 2) at >80%. 59% of clinicians used taping to manage pain, 46% for re-aligning patella, and 29% for activation of musculature, (figure 3). Clinicians preferred to initially apply tape, then test in-situ before re-applying (74%) and adapt to each cyclist (87%) - (figure 4). Reported outcome objectives were predominately pain management and biomechanical changes. When asked to score the effects of clinical taping, participants felt that pain; biomechanical changes and proprioception were effective to ‘some degree’ (figure 5). Proprioception was considered very influential by over 50% (figure 5). Reasons for use that scored highly were clinical effectiveness, ease of use and longevity (figure 6). Rating of efficacy and effectiveness scored high in ‘success of outcome’, ‘repeatability & reliability’, and ‘comfort’ (figure 7). >50% felt that placebo had some effect (figure 5). Discussion: KTT is clearly the tape of choice in cycling today. This is in contrast to the use of McConnell type tape in traditional physical therapy setting. There was considerable variability in clinician’s reasoning for taping use, reflecting gaps in the current knowledge base. Its clinical adaptation usage is in line with previous work by McConnell even though its longevity and comfort appears to separate its practice in cycling. The reported perception of placebo effect from KTT tape is an intriguing adjunct to the findings and should be considered in future research designs for effectiveness using this type of tape. This (placebo effect) was specified as a separate effect from that of proprioception however, which scored highly as a clinical effect. Notably, proprioception in cycling has not been effectively measured to date. Interestingly, clinicians felt it was an effect to some degree (fig 5) whilst also scoring it as not at all important clinically (Figure 7). The use of social media to recruit participants establishes a new and innovative approach to recruitment. This can be seen as timely due to its prevalence in today’s society and increased use amongst clinicians globally for both networking and evidence based practice debate and knowledge transfer. Conclusions. KTT appears the preferred application in cycling related knee pain. The data provide a clear rationale for the testing of specific taping techniques and indicate how clinicians are currently using taping in the treatment of cycling related knee pain. These results give a clear focus for a follow up study, which would aim to determine the biomechanical efficacy and clinical effectiveness of KTT. This work would determine any biomechanical changes in the PFJ during cycling as well as looking at any effects from neutral and no tape.  In addition, a focus on pain and placebo would be interesting outcome measures of future work.

Characterising group-cycling journeys using interactive graphics

The group-cycling behaviours of over 16,000 members of the London Cycle Hire Scheme (LCHS), a large public bikeshare system, are identified and analysed. Group journeys are defined as trips made by two or more cyclists together in space and time. Detailed insights into group-cycling behaviour are generated using specifically designed visualization software. We find that in many respects group-cycle journeys fit an expected pattern of discretionary activity: group journeys are more likely at weekends, late evenings and lunchtimes; they generally take place within more pleasant parts of the city; and between individuals apparently known to each other. A separate set of group activity is found, however, that coincides with commuting peaks and that appears to be imposed onto LCHS users by the scheme’s design. Studying the characteristics of individuals making group journeys, we identify a group of less experienced LCHS cyclists that appear to make more spatially extensive journeys than they would do normally while cycling with others; and that female cyclists are more likely to make late evening journeys when cycling in groups. For 20% of group cyclists, the first journey ever made through the LCHS was a group journey; this is particularly surprising since just 9% of all group cyclists’ journeys are group journeys. Moreover, we find that women are very significantly (p<0.001) overrepresented amongst these ‘first time group cyclists’. Studying the bikeshare cyclists, or bike share ‘friends’, that individuals make ‘first time group journeys’ with, we find a significantly high incidence (p<0.001) of group journeys being made with friends of the opposite gender, and for a very large proportion (55%) of members these first ever journeys are made with a friend that shares the same postcode. A substantial insight, then, is that group cycling appears to be a means through which early LCHS usage is initiated.

Perceived Influence of a Compression, Posture-Cueing Shirt on Cyclists’ Ride Experience and Post-Ride Recovery

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the opinions of experienced cyclists on perceived influence of a posture-cueing shirt with compressive properties on their comfort and recovery. MethodsTwenty experienced cyclists wore a compressive shirt during rides and as a postride recovery shirt; cyclists rated their perceived experiences during rides and recovery. They completed 2 separate questionnaires specific to riding or recovery; scores ranged from −3.0 (negative influence) to +3.0 (positive influence), addressing posture, discomfort, breathing, and recovery. Data analysis included frequencies and t tests to compare groups. ResultsCyclists completed 53 rides, averaging 95.48 km (SD = 31.72 km), wearing the shirt and reported a perceived benefit (mean score = 1.17, SD = 0.25). For their postride recovery perceptions, scores averaged 1.99 (SD = 0.48) for perceived benefits for recovery. No differences in scores were identified between male and female cyclists during rides (t = −0.28, P > .05); however, female riders perceived greater benefit during recovery (t = −2.24, P < .05). There were no correlations with scores and cyclist age, experience, or ride distances during rides or recovery (r = 0.02-0.35). ConclusionA posture-cueing, compressive shirt was rated to have a perceived benefit by experienced cyclists for riding posture, postride posture, spine discomfort, and postride recovery. This study did not evaluate physical or physiologic variables to confirm these perceptions.

Bicycle infrastructure: can good design encourage cycling?

This research posits the question that good design of the bicycle infrastructure in a city will encourage more people to cycle. Research is carried out to compare the cycle infrastructure in selected European cities against an adapted Level of Service concept using accompanied ride-alongs. The literature review on the factors that encourage/dissuade cycle use suggests that it is the potential rider’s perceptions on the safety of cycling in their neighbourhood that is the deciding feature. Moreover, the literature review showed that contextual factors such as whether the actual infrastructure meets the needs of different cyclists are relatively under-researched. Six case study cities were selected (Edinburgh, Cambridge, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht) and compared on a range of factors by the riders including the coherence, directness, attractiveness, safety and comfort of the network. A cycle infrastructure scoring system was derived from the cycling research literature and the research was carried out by the researcher, an experienced cyclist, accompanied by an inexperienced cyclist. Using this research, the article makes several recommendations for improving and enhancing existing cycle infrastructure provision.

Estimating bias from loss to follow-up in a prospective cohort study of bicycle crash injuries

BackgroundLoss to follow-up, if related to exposures, confounders and outcomes of interest, may bias association estimates. We estimated the magnitude and direction of such bias in a prospective cohort study...

Parenting Influences on Bicycle Helmet Rules and Estimations of Children's Helmet Use

ABSTRACT The present study examined the potential relationship between parenting variables and estimations of children's bicycle helmet use. Parents (N = 121) completed surveys asking about parental monitoring and questions about their bicycle habits and attitudes, as well as their expectations for their children to wear a helmet and their estimation of how often their children wear a helmet. Parents reported stronger helmet rules for their children who are beginning cyclists rather than experienced cyclists, and rules for experienced cyclists were more strongly endorsed among parents who reported more parental monitoring as well. Parents who wear helmets themselves endorsed stronger helmet rules for their experienced riders, compared to parents who do not wear helmets. Parents without helmet rules reported more peer pressure in that they were more likely to agree that their friends do not make their kids wear helmets and that their child's friends do not wear helmets. In addition, believing other parents do not wear helmets and believing one's child's friends do not wear helmets were both associated with a lower likelihood that their children wear a helmet. This appears to be the first study linking perceptions of parental peer pressure with helmet rules and use. For public health reasons, it is imperative to examine parental factors that may establish children's helmet wearing.

Neuromuscular changes following simulated high-intensity cycling performance in moderate hypoxia

The purpose of this study was to determine whether central activation (CA) is reduced following a simulated 20-km cycling time trial (20TT) under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. It was hypothesized that CA, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), and peripheral variables would become reduced during the 20TT exercise under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions, but to a greater extent under the hypoxic condition. Eight experienced male cyclists performed two simulated 20TTs in random order in a hypoxic chamber at either 15% or 21% fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2). Using the interpolated twitch technique during MVC of the quadriceps, measurements were collected before the exercise, and at 1, 2, 3, and 4 minutes postexercise. The CA values at 1, 2, 3, and 4 minutes postexercise were all significantly reduced from the pre-exercise value. Significant decreases were also detected in all four postexercise MVC measurements and in the third and fourth peak twitch force (PTF) measurements. All four postexercise MVC measurements were significantly decreased. These findings suggest that CA, MVC, and PTF values were significantly reduced and remain reduced at 4 minutes following a self-paced, simulated endurance cycling performance. However, the hypoxic condition had no effect on CA, MVC, or peripheral variables when compared with the normoxic condition.

A Kinematic Comparison of Alterations to Knee and Ankle Angles from Resting Measures to Active Pedaling During a Graded Exercise Protocol

Saddle height is one of the most researched areas of bike fit. The current accepted method for adjusting saddle height involves the use of a goniometer to adjust saddle height so that a knee angle between 25° and 35° is obtained. This measurement is taken while the cyclist maintains a static position with the pedal at the 6-o'-clock position. However, the act of pedaling is dynamic, and angles may alter during movement. The purpose of this study was to examine the alterations to knee and ankle angle occurring from static measures to active pedaling across intensities experienced by cyclists during a graded exercise protocol. Thirty-four recreational to highly trained cyclists were evaluated using 2D analysis of stationary position and 3 active levels (level 1, respiratory exchange ratio of 1.00, and max). Dependent measures were compared using repeated measures analysis of variance (p = 0.05). When examining the results, it is evident that significant alterations to pedal stroke occur from stationary measures to active pedaling and as intensity increases toward maximal. Plantar flexion increased when moving from stationary measures to active pedaling, which resulted in an increase in knee angle. Although still greater than stationary measures, less plantar flexion occurred at higher intensities when compared with lower intensity cycling. Less plantar flexion at higher intensities is most likely a result of application of a larger downward torque occurring because of greater power requirements at higher intensities. There appeared to be greater variability in angle when examining novice cyclists in relation to more experienced cyclists. Although stationary measures are where a bike fit session will begin, observation during the pedal cycle may be needed to fine-tune the riders' fit.

Physiological demands of downhill mountain biking

Mountain biking is a popular recreational pursuit and the physiological demands of cross-country style riding have been well documented. However, little is known regarding the growing discipline of gravity-assisted downhill cycling. We characterised the physiological demands of downhill mountain biking under typical riding conditions. Riding oxygen consumption ([Vdot]O2) and heart rate (HR) were measured on 11 male and eight female experienced downhill cyclists and compared with data during a standardised incremental to maximum ([Vdot]O2max) exercise test. The mean [Vdot]O2 while riding was 23.1 ± 6.9 ml · kg−1 · min−1 or 52 ± 14% of [Vdot]O2max with corresponding heart rates of 146 ± 11 bpm (80 ± 6% HRmax). Over 65% of the ride was in a zone at or above an intensity level associated with improvements in health-related fitness. However, the participants’ heart rates and ratings of perceived exertion were artificially inflated in comparison with the actual metabolic demands of the downhill ride. Substantial muscular fatigue was evident in grip strength, which decreased 5.4 ± 9.4 kg (5.5 ± 11.2%, P = 0.03) post-ride. Participation in downhill mountain biking is associated with significant physiological demands, which are in a range associated with beneficial effects on health-related fitness.

The Relationship Between Freely Chosen Cadence and Optimal Cadence in Cycling

The main aim of this study was to compare the freely chosen cadence (FCC) and the cadence at which the blood lactate concentration at constant power output is minimized (optimal cadence [Copt]). The second aim was to examine the effect of a concomitant change of road incline and body position on FCC, the maximal external power output (Pmax), and the corresponding Copt. FCC, Copt, and Pmax were analyzed under 2 conditions: cycling on level ground in a dropped position (LGDP) and cycling uphill in an upright position (UHUP). Seven experienced cyclists participated in this study. They cycled on a treadmill to test the 2 main hypotheses: Experienced cyclists would choose an adequate cadence close to Copt independent of the cycling condition, and FCC and Copt would be lower and Pmax higher for UHUP than with LGDP. Most but not all experienced cyclists chose an adequate cadence close to Copt. Independent of the cycling condition, FCC and Copt were not statistically different. FCC (82.1 ± 11.1 and 89.3 ± 10.6 rpm, respectively) and Copt (81.5 ± 9.8 and 87.7 ± 10.9 rpm, respectively) were significantly lower and Pmax was significantly higher (2.0 ± 2.1%) for UHUP than for LGDP. Most experienced cyclists choose a cadence near Copt to minimize peripheral fatigue at a given power output independent of the cycling condition. Furthermore, it is advantageous to use a lower cadence and a more upright body position during uphill cycling.

Thorax and Pelvis Kinematics Change During Sustained Cycling

The aim of this study was to evaluate time dependent changes in 3 dimensional (3D) thorax and pelvis kinematics during an intense 60 min bike ride. 10 experienced male road cyclists pedalled for 60 min at workloads based on previous onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) testing. The 60 min cycle was divided into six 10 min periods consisting of 8 min of steady state cycling (88% of OBLA) followed by 90 s at 140% of OBLA and a 30 s recovery phase (60% of OBLA). Thorax and pelvis kinematic data were recorded from 20 consecutive pedal revolutions using a 3D motion capture system (200 Hz) during each steady state phase. Repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections were used to test for effects of test duration on segmental kinematics. Results indicated an effect for test duration on the mean thorax (p<0.001) and pelvic tilt (p=0.042), pelvic lateral tilt velocity (p=0.006) and the ROM in thoracic lateral tilt (p<0.001). These changes all occurred between the 4th and 5th work periods. Findings indicated that during the latter stages of a high intensity ride cyclists changed the sagittal plane thorax and pelvis orientation, increased lateral thoracic movements and pelvic lateral tilt velocities.

Increasing the number of bicycle commuters

The present study confirmed that commuter cyclists take on different mode-choice behaviours depending on whether they have experienced leisure cycling prior to becoming a commuter cyclist. In a survey conducted for the present study, about 57% of the sampled commuter cyclists had experience as a leisure cyclist. The remaining individuals were inexperienced at leisure cycling. A discrete mode-choice model, which has been widely used in mode-choice studies, was applied separately for each commuter-cyclist group, based on the stated preference data with the conventional explanatory variables (i.e. individual- and alternative-specific variables). The results showed that the model for inexperienced commuter cyclists exhibited a higher goodness-of-fit compared with the experienced cyclists. In order to address the attitudinal differences between the two groups, a binary logit model was applied again to examine the factors that may cause the difference. The extra variables associated with the previous commuting mode and the current conditions of cycling to work were put into the binary logit model. In particular, seven latent factors were derived from 28 questions by using principal component analysis. Several variables, such as distance to work, previous commuting mode, sensitivity to the environment, and symbolic motives for driving a car, were statistically significant and decisive in accounting for the differences between experienced and inexperienced commuter cyclists. Therefore, it is recommended that targeting experienced cyclists would be the optimal approach to promote the use of bicycles and reduce the use of motorised vehicles. The results of the present study could also provide policy makers with valuable background information about commuter cyclists.