Imagery Experience Research Articles

Musical minds: Personality, schizotypy, and involuntary musical imagery.

Musical imagery-hearing music in your mind that isn't playing in the environment-is a common experience (Williams, 2015). Research has sought to describe what it is like and how often it happens, with emphasis on involuntary musical imagery (INMI), sometimes referred to as earworms. Liikkanen (2012) found that about 90% of people experience INMI at least once a week and typically hear songs they are familiar with; other researchers have found similar results with INMI (Floridou & Mullensiefen, 2015; Halpern & Bartlett, 2011; Hyman et al., 2015) and musical imagery more broadly (Bailes, 2006; Beaty et al., 2013). In addition, research has found that people generally consider these to be positive experiences (Bailes, 2007; Beaman & Williams, 2010; Beaty et al., 2013; Floridou & Mullensiefen, 2015; Halpern & Bartlett, 2011; Hyman et al., 2015).Although most research has examined what INMI and general musical imagery experiences are like, the present research focuses on INMI and how different aspects of these experiences relate to personality and schizotypy. To date, only a handful of studies have considered the role of personality traits in the experience of INMI and musical imagery more generally. Beaty et al. (2013) examined the Big 5 personality traits and general musical imagery using both experience sampling measures and retrospective surveys. In both cases, openness to experience-and, to a lesser extent, neuroticism- were related to how often people heard inner music. Similarly, Kellaris (2001) found that people higher in neuroticism experience INMI more frequently. These studies, however, did not examine how personality relates to different aspects of INMI experiences. Floridou, Williamson, and Mullensiefen (2012) found that, of the Big 5 personality traits, neuroticism and openness to experience were related to different aspects of INMI. Specifically, people high in neuroticism had longer episodes of INMI, found them more worrying, felt they were interfering with daily activities, and saw these experiences as more unpleasant; people higher in openness had longer episodes and felt their INMI interfered with their daily activities. From this small collection of studies, it appears that openness to experience and neuroticism relate to both INMI and general musical imagery experiences.Additionally, some research has examined how INMI is associated with general mental control abilities and schizotypy. Schizotypy is a construct that represents the continuum of risk, from normal to clinical, for schizophrenia and related disorders (Kwapil, Barrantes-Vidal, & Silvia, 2008). Schizotypal experiences commonly sort into two broad factors: positive symptoms associated with deviant beliefs and experiences, and negative symptoms associated with diminished pleasure and motivation (Kwapil, Gross, Silvia, & Barrantes-Vidal, 2013). Mental slippage-low cognitive control-is a defining deficit in people with schizophrenia (Wongupparaj, Kumari, & Morris, 2015), and it is apparent in less severe forms in people with elevated schizotypy scores. Lower control in schizotypy is associated with reduced filtering of auditory stimuli as well as aberrant sensory experiences (Croft, Lee, Bertolot, & Gruzelier, 2001; Ettinger et al., 2015). This suggests that people high in schizotypy are more likely to experience involuntary imagery-specifically auditory imagery (Ettinger et al., 2015; Gray, Snowden, Peoples, Hemsley, & Gray, 2003; Lagioia, Van De Ville, Debbane, Lazeyras, & Eliez, 2010).Beaman and Williams (2013) explored the roles of mental control, using the White Bear Suppression Inventory (Wegner & Zanakos, 1994), and schizotypy (Raine, 1991). Raine's (1991) measure of schizotypy consists of three factors-Cognitive-Perceptual (unusual perceptual experiences and magical thinking), Interpersonal (social anxiety, constriction of affect), and Disorganized (odd behaviors and speech). Lower mental control was associated with difficulty in stopping earworms; both lower mental control and higher schizotypy- particularly the cognitive-perceptual factor-were associated with feeling that the earworm was disrupting daily activities and the selfreported duration of the earworms (Beaman & Williams, 2013). …

Emotion Regulation Predicts Imagery Ability

This study explored the relationship between athletes’ emotion regulation and imagery ability. A total of 648 athletes (57% female; Mage = 20.79 years, SD = 4.36) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized model in which reappraisal positively predicted all SIAQ subscales. However, suppression had no significant association with imagery ability despite being predicted to be negatively associated. Results support the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use that individual characteristics will influence the imagery experience. Specifically, athletes who reappraise their emotions more frequently find it easier to image sport related content.

Brain-based decoding of mentally imagined film clips and sounds reveals experience-based information patterns in film professionals

In the perceptual domain, it has been shown that the human brain is strongly shaped through experience, leading to expertise in highly-skilled professionals. What has remained unclear is whether specialization also shapes brain networks underlying mental imagery. In our fMRI study, we aimed to uncover modality-specific mental imagery specialization of film experts. Using multi-voxel pattern analysis we decoded from brain activity of professional cinematographers and sound designers whether they were imagining sounds or images of particular film clips. In each expert group distinct multi-voxel patterns, specific for the modality of their expertise, were found during classification of imagery modality. These patterns were mainly localized in the occipito-temporal and parietal cortex for cinematographers and in the auditory cortex for sound designers. We also found generalized patterns across perception and imagery that were distinct for the two expert groups: they involved frontal cortex for the cinematographers and temporal cortex for the sound designers. Notably, the mental representations of film clips and sounds of cinematographers contained information that went beyond modality-specificity. We were able to successfully decode the implicit presence of film genre from brain activity during mental imagery in cinematographers. The results extend existing neuroimaging literature on expertise into the domain of mental imagery and show that experience in visual versus auditory imagery can alter the representation of information in modality-specific association cortices.

The Phenomenology and Generation of Positive Mental Imagery in Early Psychosis.

Theoretical models of depression and bipolar disorder emphasise the importance of positive mental imagery in mood and behaviour. Distressing, intrusive images are common in psychosis; however, little is known about positive imagery experiences or their association with clinical symptoms. The aim of the current study was to examine the phenomenology of positive imagery in early psychosis and the relationship between the characteristics of positive, future-oriented imagery and symptom severity. Characteristics, thematic content and appraisals of recent self-reported images were examined in 31 people with early psychosis. The vividness and perceived likelihood of deliberately generated, future-oriented images were investigated in relation to clinical symptoms. Eighty-four percent of participants reported experiencing a recent positive image. Themes included the achievement of personal goals, spending enjoyable time with peers and family, loving, intimate relationships and escape from current circumstances. The vividness and perceived likelihood of generated prospective imagery were negatively correlated with levels of depression and social anxiety. The relationship between emotional problems and the ability to imagine positive, future events may have implications for motivation, mood and goal-directed behaviour in psychosis. Everyday experiences of positive imagery may represent the simulation of future goals, attempts to cope or avoid aversive experiences or idealised fantasy. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. The majority of participants experienced a recent positive image with themes related to goal attainment and social relationships. Depression and social anxiety levels were correlated with the vividness of intentionally generated positive future-oriented images and their perceived likelihood. The assessment of positive imagery in early psychosis appears warranted and may provide insights regarding individual coping strategies, values and goals.

The role of non-rigid transformation in the origami imagery experience

The role of non-rigid transformation in the origami imagery experience

THE BRAND WEBSITE`S POTENTIAL FOR CONDITIONING THE EXPERIENCE OF MENTAL IMAGERY: THE ROLE OF WEBSITE USABILITY

For many brands, offering valuable and original experiences for customers is the main means of gaining awareness, image values and hence, strategic competitive advantage. Brands like Abercrombie and Fitch, BONOBOS and Victoria’s Secret have understood the opportunities offered by experiential marketing as a new philosophy of thinking, conceiving and proposing a marketing offer. This challenge is as important for online fashion brands that target millennial customers considered as internet addicts (Bergman et al., 2005) always looking for information, exhibitionism and enjoyable online experiences. With the growth of online fashion shopping it is important that fashion retailers pay attention to the relationship between specific website quality dimensions and customer satisfaction (Kim and Stoel, 2004). Fashion brands must go beyond the vision of the website as a medium of information to a medium of entertaining proposing additional extraordinary and optimal experiences for these customers. As noted by Kim (2007), online fashion retailers need to be able to communicate the product information virtually in order to create accurate product perceptions for consumers who are visiting their website. Thus, the main question is “what are the elements of the website which could help achieve these aims?”There has been little empirical research which focuses on how information features affect consumers` commitments to a shopping site on the web (Park and Kim, 2006). Consequently,the main aim of this paper is to further research in the domain by illustrating how the online fashion brand provides a valuable shopping, consuming and cognitive experience that fits with the consumer’s expectations aligning these with the extraordinary and symbolic world of the brand. From this perspective, the website of the brand – due to its multisensory, interactive and hyper-mediatized nature – can be a very effective digital support for achieving these goals. It represents the virtual environment that enables the brand to create and open up a universe that transcribes its functional, experiential and symbolic values. From the consumer’s psychological perspective, this online communication strategy questions the psychological process that underlines the perception, elaboration and reactions of the consumer during his online experience: To this is end, it is relevant to focus on the influences of the usability of the website on the attributes of the mental images the consumer experiences and the moderating role that brand attitude and involvement in the product category could have in this. Also, based on MacInnis and Price (1987) recommendations, it is relevant to analyze the role the consumer’s style of processing could have in this process. Thus, the research questions are: How do the attributes of the website impact the mental imagery experience of the consumer during his/her website visit?; and what are the consequences of these psychological reactions on the consumer’s post-visit attitude and behavior.In attempt to respond to these questions, we explore the psychological process that underlies consumer online behavior. We draw on the literature which emphasizes the link between the website attributes and the imagery processing of the online consumer. We present and empirically test our conceptual model within the current quantitative study. We follow with a discussion of our results and presentation of the implications of our study for theory and practice.

Inside the Energy Salon: Installation and Illusions of Finality

This article analyzes promotional images associated with energy events as ethnographic objects in their own right. I examine how the sensory experience of promotional imagery with its fantasy display contributes to the rational presentation of energy planning, with its emphasis on accountability through expert knowledge provisioning. Promotional images fall under the rubric of impression management where an ideal of believability mediates between objects of manufacture and their desire. Informed by the works of artists Marcel Duchamp and Andy Warhol, I frame these images as an illusion of finality, which I then connect to a broader argument about the rise of an energy salon―a shift that appears to involve an increased prominence of visual attention and management in how energy expertise is produced, performed, and circulated.

Environmental and mental conditions predicting the experience of involuntary musical imagery: An experience sampling method study.

An experience sampling method (ESM) study on 40 volunteers was conducted to explore the environmental factors and psychological conditions related to involuntary musical imagery (INMI) in everyday life. Participants reported 6 times per day for one week on their INMI experiences, relevant contextual information and associated environmental conditions. The resulting data was modeled with Bayesian networks and led to insights into the interplay of factors related to INMI experiences. The activity that a person is engaged was found to play an important role in the experience of mind wandering, which in turn enables the experience of INMI. INMI occurrence is independent of the time of the day while the INMI trigger affects the subjective evaluation of the INMI experience. The results are compared to findings from earlier studies based on retrospective surveys and questionnaires and highlight the advantage of ESM techniques in research on spontaneous experiences like INMI.

Music in mind? An experience sampling study of what and when, towards an understanding of why.

Imagining music in the course of everyday life has only recently graduated from anecdote to the subject of scientific investigation. Although recent empirical studies concern Involuntary Musical Imagery (INMI, Liikkanen, 2008), or earworms that stick or repeat in mind, this article adopts a broader perspective in its concern for any form of imagined music that might occur, whether or voluntary, persistent or fleeting. An experience sampling study of university music students' everyday imaginings of music (Bailes, 2006, 2007) found that musical imagery occurred both spontaneously and as an corollary of a voluntary musical activity such as performing or thinking about music. Broader questions of volition arise. Liikkanen (2008) acknowledged the potential importance of voluntary control in involuntary musical imagery, by conceptually separating activation and upkeep components; the former occurring outside of attention, and the latter allowing for mental control. Individual differences in thought suppression and schizotypy predict experiences of INMI (Beaman & Williams, 2013). Mullensiefen et al. (2014) found a relationship between obsessive- compulsive attributes in a nonclinical population and INMI disturbance and frequency, speculating that deliberate attempts to suppress unwanted INMI might in fact enhance its occurrence. However, the authors note a potential weakness with their reliance on retrospective questionnaires, which might have led to a greater focus on INMI than would occur with the use of time-sensitive methods such as experience pling. with this, Beaty et al. (2013) report a discrepancy between their own two studies of musical imagery that they attribute to method: their retrospective questionnaire study revealed a relationship between neuroticism and reports of music being stuck in the head, whereas their experience sampling study revealed no such relationship.There are many reasons to favor experience sampling methods (ESM) in the study of ephemeral phenomena such as musical imagery (see Bailes, 2006). Retrospective methods such as questionnaires and diary studies are particularly prone to memory and reporting biases, and do not capture fine-grained longitudinal patterns. Bailes (2007) used ESM to observe musical imagery experiences as they occurred, rather than through retrospective recall. Respondents filled out an Experience Sampling Form (ESF) each time they received a signal on their mobile phone. Six signals were sent each day, at semirandom times throughout the day (10 a.m.-10 p.m.), for a period of 7 days. The form comprised both closed and open questions, with the advantage of capturing a quick snapshot of each episode that could be readily compared with other episodes by the same individual and other respondents, as well as capturing qualitative data describing the context and feel of the episode (qualitative detail that was not recorded in the recent experience sampling study of musical imagery by Beaty et al. (2013)). Respondents imagined music on average 35% of the sampled time, melody and lyrics were rated as the most vivid components of their mental image, and respondents reported imagining music most when interacting with others, working or traveling. The number of episodes of imagined music dropped in the final 2-hr time period of the day (8 p.m.-10 p.m.). However, Bailes (2006, 2007) was limited by a relatively small sample size (N ^ 11, 417 completed ESFs), but also by a focus on the experiences of university music students. The aim of the current article is to expand this earlier research by using the same qualitatively rich ESM to investigate 47 members of the wider public. It will ask whether findings from the previous ESM study with music students can be generalized to a wider population, and address the question of what and when people imagine in everyday life.What Do We Imagine?Regarding what is imagined, people report imagining music that is familiar to them (Bailes, 2007), a form of memory (Halpern & Bartlett, 2011), although a minority imagine their own composed music (Bailes, 2006, 2007; Beaty et al. …

Phenomenology of men with body dysmorphic disorder concerning penis size compared to men anxious about their penis size and to men without concerns: A cohort study

Men with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) may be preoccupied with the size or shape of the penis, which may be causing significant shame or impairment. Little is known about the characteristics and phenomenology of such men and whether they can be differentiated from men with small penis anxiety (SPA) (who do not have BDD), and men with no penile concerns. Twenty-six men with BDD, 31 men with SPA, and 33 men without penile concerns were compared on psychopathology, experiences of recurrent imagery, avoidance and safety-seeking behaviours. Men with BDD had significantly higher scores than both the SPA group and no penile concern group for measures of imagery, avoidance, safety seeking and general psychopathology. The groups differed on the phenomenology of BDD specific to penile size preoccupation clearly from the worries of SPA, which in turn were different to those of the men without concerns. The common avoidance and safety seeking behaviours were identified in such men that may be used clinically.

Exploring the Role of Mental Imagery in the Experience of Self-injury: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.

Research has implicated causal, mediating and meaningful roles for mental imagery in the experience of psychological distress, including self-injury. The present study aimed to further the understanding of this relationship through exploring the lived experiences of mental imagery from the perspective of those who self-injure. This study employed an inductive qualitative design using semi-structured interviews and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Ten participants were recruited from universities in North West England. Three main themes were identified from the analysis: (i) The origins and precipitants of self-injurious imagery; (ii) What it is like to experience self-injurious imagery; and (iii) The meaning and interpretation of self-injurious imagery. The study findings indicate that mental imagery is an important experience for those who self-injure. Clinical and research implications of the findings are discussed.

A qualitative study of the therapist's spontaneous mental imagery and its impact on therapeutic process

AbstractAim: This study explores the under-researched area of the therapist's experience of spontaneous mental imagery (SMI) and its impact on the therapeutic process. Method: Five psychotherapists were interviewed and transcripts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Findings: Four overarching domains were identified. These concerned: (i) the multi-sensory ways in which participants experienced SMI; (ii) a possible tension between personal affinity with mental imagery and professional approbation; (iii) a complex matrix of ways of understanding SMI; and (iv) the identification of three principle functions of SMI. Conclusion/Implications: Overall, this study indicated the potency of SMI as experienced by the therapist and its role in informing and potentially transforming therapeutic process. The provision of wider training to foster a greater awareness and understanding of SMI within clinical practice is recommended.

'Venturing Towards the Dark Side': The Use of Imagery Interventions by Recently Qualified Cognitive-Behavioural Therapists.

Despite the growing recognition of the value of mental imagery within the field of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), there is minimal research relating to clinicians' experiences of using imagery. This paper explores recently qualified CBT therapists' clinical experiences of using imagery and their perception of the role of imagery within their practice. Twelve therapists, qualified within the past 4 years, were interviewed using a semi-structured format, and the resulting transcriptions were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The analysis identified six super-ordinate themes: (1) broad and fluid conception of imagery; (2) the importance given to imagery and the varied rationale for its inclusion; (3) varied application; (4) clinician avoidance and apprehension; (5) personal experience of imagery and impact on use; and (6) limited core training and the potential for future use. The themes, as a whole, described a complex and often dichotomous reaction to imagery amongst the therapists. Although a section of participants reported a natural affinity with imagery, other therapists felt that using, and experiencing, imagery was anxiety provoking and problematic. There was, however, unity in the value placed on imagery, the strong rationale for usage and the importance given to imagery-specific training. Avoidance and apprehension regarding imagery were evident in the majority of participants, and the reasons for such responses included personal, clinical and cultural factors. The overall findings highlight the importance of clinician factors in the way in which imagery is utilized and understood, which has positive implications for training, personal development and future research. There is a universal recognition of the value of imagery for experiential learning and emotional connection. Therapists apply a variety of rationales for using imagery. Avoidance of using imagery in CBT practice is widely reported and occurs for a variety of personal and clinical reasons. Clinicians' own experience of imagery has a significant influence on the way in which imagery is understood, utilized and experienced in therapy. Future training and research in imagery should more explicitly address the clinician factors that can inhibit or facilitate the use of evidence-based imagery interventions.

Tell Me a Story About Healthy Snacking and I Will Follow: Comparing the Effectiveness of Self-Generated Versus Message-Aided Implementation Intentions on Promoting Healthy Snacking Habits Among College Students

In the context of healthy snacking, this study examines whether the quality of mental imagery determines the effectiveness of combining the implementation intention (II) intervention with mental imagery. This study further explores whether providing narrative healthy snacking scenarios prior to forming an II enhances people’s mental imagery experience when they are not motivated to snack healthfully. A 2 × 2 factorial design was employed to test the main effect of providing healthy snacking scenarios prior to II formation, and whether such effect depends on people’s motivation level. The results from the experiment (N =148) showed significant main as well as interaction effects of the manipulation (with vs. without reading healthy snacking scenarios prior to II formation) and motivation level on ease and vividness of mental imagery. The regression model with the experiment and follow-up survey data (n = 128) showed a significant relationship between ease of mental imagery and actual snacking behavior after controlling for habit strength. The findings suggest that adding a narrative message to the II intervention can be useful, especially when the intervention involves mental imagery and invites less motivated people.

The role of oxytocin and alexithymia in the therapeutic process.

The role of oxytocin and alexithymia in the therapeutic process.

A qualitative study of the therapist's spontaneous mental imagery and its impact on therapeutic process

AbstractAim: This study explores the under-researched area of the therapist's experience of spontaneous mental imagery (SMI) and its impact on the therapeutic process. Method: Five psychotherapists were interviewed and transcripts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Findings: Four overarching domains were identified. These concerned: (i) the multi-sensory ways in which participants experienced SMI; (ii) a possible tension between personal affinity with mental imagery and professional approbation; (iii) a complex matrix of ways of understanding SMI; and (iv) the identification of three principle functions of SMI. Conclusion/Implications: Overall, this study indicated the potency of SMI as experienced by the therapist and its role in informing and potentially transforming therapeutic process. The provision of wider training to foster a greater awareness and understanding of SMI within clinical practice is recommended.

Characteristics of autobiographical memories and prospective imagery across a spectrum of hypomanic personality traits

Evidence of a strong causal relationship between mental imagery and emotion has informed psychological conceptualisations of disordered positive mood states (i.e., mania). Holmes et al.'s cognitive model of bipolar disorder asserts a prominent role for intrusive and affect-laden positive imagery of the past and the future in the amplification and maintenance of positive mood and associated manic behaviours. The aims of the current study were two-fold: (1) to test aspects of this model in a non-clinical population sampled for hypomanic personality traits and (2) to examine the phenomenological characteristics of positive autobiographical memories and imagery of the future. Undergraduate students (N = 80) completed a battery of self-report questionnaires and rated their positive and negative memories and images of the future on a number of dimensions. We found significant positive correlations between hypomanic tendencies and the (1) everyday experience and use of mental imagery, (2) experience of intrusive mental imagery of future events, (3) emotional intensity and sensory detail of positive but not negative autobiographical memories. Results are discussed in the context of their theoretical and clinical implications, and directions for future research are considered.

A Phenomenological Investigation of Divers’ Lived Experience of Imagery

Abstract Phenomenological interviews were conducted with 15 skilled divers (M=29.87 years; SD=8.30), ranging in competitive level from college to Olympic, to explore their lived experience of using imagery. Qualitative analysis of interview data revealed a total of 696 meaning units which were used to produce a final thematic structure consisting of four higher order themes: time and place, perfecting the dive, mentally preparing, and constructing the image. The results suggest that skilled divers’ imagery is an active process (i.e., includes different perspectives, speeds, and overt movements) and they use imagery for several purposes (i.e., physical and psychological). Results unique to the present study were divers’ manipulations of imagery speed, the incorporation of body movements during their imagery rehearsal to enhance the kinesthetic sensation associated with their desired image, the use of imagery aids to augment their imagery practice, and the use of imagery to focus and avoid distractions during competition. These specific nuances of divers’ use of imagery offer several practical applications for sport psychology consultants and coaches interested in implementing imagery interventions with this athlete population.

Truthful Fictions: How Dreams Can Help You Write

This article makes a case for recording and using dreams in the teaching of writing. Calling on some well-known statements of Freud and on some recent research, I attempt to show how dreams can provide writers with a route to their unconscious. I also illustrate the role of dreams in furnishing writers with inspiration and source material. I provide examples of writing, both my own poems and extracts from the work of Coleridge, Byatt, Kafka, Blanchot and Murakami amongst others, to show how dreams, the experience of dreaming and dream-like imagery have been used successfully in literature.

Individual differences in mental control predict involuntary musical imagery

The experience of earworms, a type of involuntary musical imagery, may reflect a systematic failure in mental control. This study focused on how individual differences in each of two factors, schizotypy, or “openness to experience”, and thought suppression might relate to the appearance of the involuntary musical image (earworm). Schizotypy was measured by Raine’s schizotypal personality questionnaire (SPQ; Raine, 1991) and thought suppression was measured by the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI; Wegner & Zanakos, 1994). Each was found to contribute independently to the overall experience of involuntary musical imagery. Schizotypy was correlated with the length and disruptiveness of earworms, the difficulty with which they were dismissed and the worry they caused, but was not correlated with the frequency of such intrusive imagery. In turn, schizotypy was predicted by suppression and intrusion components of WBSI. The WBSI is associated with the length, disruptiveness, difficulty dismissing and interference but not with the worry caused or the frequency of earworms. The assumption of “ownership” of earworms was also found to affect the extent to which the earworms were considered worrying. Multiple regression analysis showed that both schizotypy and the WBSI predicted the difficulty with which unwanted musical images were dismissed, but that the WBSI accounted for additional variance on top of that accounted for by schizotypy. Finally we consider how earworm-management might relate to wider cognitive processes.