Experiences Of Gender-based Violence Research Articles

A Mixed-Methods Analysis of Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Identity Development Among College Women Survivors of Gender-Based Violence

ABSTRACTUsing a mixed-methods approach, we explored how college women’s lifetime experiences of physical or sexual gender-based violence (GBV) were associated with appraisals of GBV and their feminist beliefs or identity (N = 32). Women commented on their increased awareness of the prevalence of GBV, their desire to help other women, and their beliefs about the trustworthiness of men and the current state of gender equality. Women who perceived no or minimal influence of sexism on GBV attributed their GBV experiences to a flaw in themselves or the perpetrators (i.e., self-blame, poor vigilance) or as a reasonable disciplinary measure for their ‘misbehavior.’ We also found that some women reported agreement with pro-feminist beliefs, yet rejected a feminist identity. Our findings illustrate how feminist stigma and sexism might prevent women who endorse core feminist beliefs from characterizing GBV as a sexist event. Given the potential harmful consequences of GBV and other forms of sexism, connecting women with meaningful resources, such as empowering educational programs, nurturing peer-to-peer women’s support groups, and awareness campaigns, may help to facilitate sisterhood and alleviate distress. Our findings also support the need for clinical assessment of how GBV may have affected beliefs about gender, self, world, and others.

Viewing Gendered Violence in Guatemala Through Photovoice.

This research examined rural and urban women's experiences of gender-based violence in Chimaltenango, Guatemala. Photovoice methodology was used to describe and analyze local realities and vulnerabilities, and ethnographic techniques added cultural and contextual factors. While the initial focus was on intimate partner violence, results showed that violence for women exists from childhood to senior years. Participants noted gaps in services and participated in a public strategy workshop to address these. Challenges and opportunities are presented around the enduring and complex global crisis of gendered violence. Photovoice is a powerful method for organizations to better understand and respond to local issues.

Gender-Based Violence following Social Media Acquaintance in Nigeria.

In Nigeria, the growth in mobile phone use has provided the opportunity for increased access to the internet, and through this, the social media. The social media in turn offers tremendous communication benefits but also results in some undesirable consequences. One of such is the experience of Gender-Based Violence (GBV). Internet searches using Google Search and Google Scholar in addition to information available to the authors from news media is reported in this study. Five cases were selected for reporting. All cases selected had first contact with their perpetrator(s) on Facebook. The perpetrators were usually men, older than the victims (24-34 years for perpetrators compared with 17-25 years for the victims). The victims experienced physical, psychological, sexual and economic violence from their aggressors. One case resulted in the death of the victim, while two required hospitalization following severe trauma. Three of the victims were raped, while rape was attempted for the other two cases. GBV associated with acquaintances made on social media channels is emerging as a new social problem in Nigeria. Interventions to educate female social media users about this potential danger are urgently necessary.

Comprehensive development and testing of the ASIST-GBV, a screening tool for responding to gender-based violence among women in humanitarian settings.

BackgroundConflict affected refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) are at increased vulnerability to gender-based violence (GBV). Health, psychosocial, and protection services have been implemented in humanitarian settings, but GBV remains under-reported and available services under-utilized. To improve access to existing GBV services and facilitate reporting, the ASIST-GBV screening tool was developed and tested for use in humanitarian settings. This process was completed in four phases: 1) systematic literature review, 2) qualitative research that included individual interviews and focus groups with GBV survivors and service providers, respectively, 3) pilot testing of the developed screening tool, and 4) 3-month implementation testing of the screening tool. Research was conducted among female refugees, aged ≥15 years in Ethiopia, and female IDPs, aged ≥18 years in Colombia.ResultsThe systematic review and meta-analysis identified a range of GBV experiences and estimated a 21.4 % prevalence of sexual violence (95 % CI:14.9-28.7) among conflict-affected populations. No existing screening tools for GBV in humanitarian settings were identified. Qualitative research with GBV survivors in Ethiopia and Colombia found multiple forms of GBV experienced by refugees and IDPs that occurred during conflict, in transit, and in displaced settings. Identified forms of violence were combined into seven key items on the screening tool: threats of violence, physical violence, forced sex, sexual exploitation, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, and early or forced marriage. Cognitive testing further refined the tool. Pilot testing in both sites demonstrated preliminary feasibility where 64.8 % of participants in Ethiopia and 44.9 % of participants in Colombia were identified with recent (last 12 months) cases of GBV. Implementation testing of the screening tool, conducted as a routine service in camp/district hospitals, allowed for identification of GBV cases and referrals to services. In this phase, 50.6 % of participants in Ethiopia and 63.4 % in Colombia screened positive for recent experiences of GBV. Psychometric testing demonstrated appropriate internal consistency of the tool (Cronbach’s α = 0.77) and item response theory demonstrated appropriate discrimination and difficulty of the tool.ConclusionThe ASIST-GBV screening tool has demonstrated utility and validity for use in confidential identification and referral of refugees and IDPs who experience GBV.

Survivors of gender-based violence and role of official psychiatry in recovery process

Consequences of events in the Southern region of the Kyrgyz Republic continue to have impact on communities to the present day. One of the most significant is a number of undiagnosed cases of rapes and other types of gender-based violence (GBV), which happened during the events of 2010. Accurate prevalence rates of GBV cases is still unknown. According to official data of Ministry of Internal Affairs, there were only seven cases of rape, however, according to the crisis center reports, there were 325. Even more alarming, witnesses of the Osh events suggest one out of three women in Osh and Jalal-Abad were either raped or suffered from other types of GBV. Those acts included undressing and unveiling, and cutting women's hair to a shamelessly short length. Cultural stereotypes dictate women hide their ‘shame’, which is why only a small percentage of victims with PTSD symptoms that developed after GBV sought out services from professionals, such as from crisis centers, psychologists and psychiatrists and, of course, police. Author analyzed several cases of women raped during the Osh massacre and suffered from PTSD signs afterwards. The previous painful experience of GBV was uncovered during treatment. The problem is that mental heath care specialists are the last stop for applying for help. This paper analyses several ways of solving the problem, including creating a number of normative documents in collaboration with Ministry of Internal Affairs and Ministry of Health of the Kyrgyz Republic.Disclosure of interestThe author has not supplied his/her declaration of competing interest.

Adolescent girls and young women: key populations for HIV epidemic control.

IntroductionAt the epicentre of the HIV epidemic in southern Africa, adolescent girls and young women aged 15–24 contribute a disproportionate ~30% of all new infections and seroconvert 5–7 years earlier than their male peers. This age–sex disparity in HIV acquisition continues to sustain unprecedentedly high incidence rates, and preventing HIV infection in this age group is a pre-requisite for achieving an AIDS-free generation and attaining epidemic control.DiscussionAdolescent girls and young women in southern Africa are uniquely vulnerable to HIV and have up to eight times more infection than their male peers. While the cause of this vulnerability has not been fully elucidated, it is compounded by structural, social and biological factors. These factors include but are not limited to: engagement in age-disparate and/or transactional relationships, few years of schooling, experience of food insecurity, experience of gender-based violence, increased genital inflammation, and amplification of effects of transmission co-factors. Despite the large and immediate HIV prevention need of adolescent girls and young women, there is a dearth of evidence-based interventions to reduce their risk. The exclusion of adolescents in biomedical research is a huge barrier. School and community-based education programmes are commonplace in many settings, yet few have been evaluated and none have demonstrated efficacy in preventing HIV infection. Promising data are emerging on prophylactic use of anti-retrovirals and conditional cash transfers for HIV prevention in these populations.ConclusionsThere is an urgent need to meet the HIV prevention needs of adolescent girls and young women, particularly those who are unable to negotiate monogamy, condom use and/or male circumcision. Concerted efforts to expand the prevention options available to these young women in terms of the development of novel HIV-specific biomedical, structural and behavioural interventions are urgently needed for epidemic control. In the interim, a pragmatic approach of integrating existing HIV prevention efforts into broader sexual reproductive health services is a public health imperative.

Examining gender based violence and abuse among Liberian school students in four counties: An exploratory study

The purpose of this article is to uncover the extent of sexual gender based violence (GBV) experienced by a convenience sample of students from select counties in Liberia and to understand the disclosure experiences of those victims willing to come forward. Girls (n=758) and boys (n=1,100) were asked about their sexual GBV experiences including their disclosure experiences, if applicable. Results indicated that sexual violation (i.e., peeping or inappropriate touching) was found among both girls and boys. Sexual coercion (i.e., forced sex) was more prevalent than transactional sex (i.e., trading sex for grades or money). Both sexual coercion and transactional sex were reported by more girls than boys, yet the rates for the most severe form of sexual violence (i.e., sexual coercion) were high for both girls (30%) and boys (22%). When students were asked if they told anyone, 38% reported that they did disclose their experiences. This study contributes to a small but growing body of research to document the prevalence and types of sexual violence against children in Liberia. Consistent with other studies, the evidence shows that sexual violence against boys and girls is occurring at alarming rates.

Development of a screening tool to identify female survivors of gender-based violence in a humanitarian setting: qualitative evidence from research among refugees in Ethiopia

BackgroundHigh levels of gender-based violence (GBV) persist among conflict-affected populations and within humanitarian settings and are paralleled by under-reporting and low service utilization. Novel and evidence-based approaches are necessary to change the current state of GBV amongst these populations. We present the findings of qualitative research, which were used to inform the development of a screening tool as one potential strategy to identify and respond to GBV for females in humanitarian settings.MethodsQualitative research methods were conducted from January-February 2011 to explore the range of experiences of GBV and barriers to reporting GBV among female refugees. Individual interview participants (n=37) included female refugees (≥15 years), who were survivors of GBV, living in urban or one of three camps settings in Ethiopia, and originating from six conflict countries. Focus group discussion participants (11 groups; 77 participants) included health, protection and community service staff working in the urban or camp settings. Interviews and discussions were conducted in the language of preference, with assistance by interpreters when needed, and transcribed for analysis by grounded-theory technique.ResultsSingle and multiple counts of GBV were reported and ranged from psychological and social violence; rape, gang rape, sexual coercion, and other sexual violence; abduction; and physical violence. Domestic violence was predominantly reported to occur when participants were living in the host country. Opportunistic violence, often manifested by rape, occurred during transit when women depended on others to reach their destination. Abduction within the host country, and often across borders, highlighted the constant state of vulnerability of refugees. Barriers to reporting included perceived and experienced stigma in health settings and in the wider community, lack of awareness of services, and inability to protect children while mothers sought services.ConclusionsFindings demonstrate that GBV persists across the span of the refugee experience, though there is a transition in the range of perpetrators and types of GBV that are experienced. Further, survivors experience significant individual and system barriers to disclosure and service utilization. The findings suggest that routine GBV screening by skilled service providers offers a strategy to confidentially identify and refer survivors to needed services within refugee settings, potentially enabling survivors to overcome existing barriers.

Barriers to Treatment Engagement for Depression among Latinas

In spite of successful treatment options for depression, the majority of Americans with severe depression do not receive treatment. Latinos are even less likely to engage in treatment than non-Hispanic Whites. The purpose of this study is to explore barriers to treatment engagement and, more specifically, how childhood adversity and gender-based violence (GBV) contribute to a lack of perceived support for treatment engagement. Experiences of GBV and childhood adversity can call into question deeply held family, cultural, and religious values, and affect the perceived quality of the therapeutic relationship and attitudes about depression treatment. A qualitative descriptive methodology was used to understand the experiences of a sample of 12 Latinas who were part of a diabetes prevention study (n = 67) and had been referred for treatment because of elevated symptoms of depression. Results indicate that the often-cited barriers to mental health care (i.e., language barriers, economic considerations, and lack of illness recognition) did not serve as deterrents for Latinas in this study. Participants recognized that they were depressed and agreed with the assessment of depression. However, none of the women followed up on the recommendation to seek care. What has emerged from this study is how cultural values, such as familismo and marianismo, and the lack of responsiveness from family and religious leaders in the context of exposure to GBV and childhood adversity created significant barriers to treatment engagement. This study highlights the need for nurses to screen for these exposures and to engage in shared decision making about treatment.

Increased Gender-based Violence Among Women Internally Displaced in Mississippi 2 Years Post–Hurricane Katrina

Although different types of gender-based violence (GBV) have been documented in disaster-affected populations, no studies have documented a quantitative increase in rates of GBV among populations living in protracted displacement after a disaster. We aimed to assess the change in rates of GBV after Hurricane Katrina among internally displaced people (IDPs) living in travel trailer parks in Mississippi. The study design included successive cross-sectional randomized surveys, conducted in 2006 and 2007, among IDPs in Mississippi using a structured questionnaire. We sampled 50 travel trailer parks in 9 counties in Mississippi in 2006, and 69 parks in 20 counties in 2007. A total of 420 female respondents comprised the final sample. We measured respondent demographics, forms of GBV including sexual and physical violence further subtyped by perpetrator, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, and Patient Health Questionnaire-9-assessed depression. Respondents had a mean age of 42.7 years. The crude rate of new cases of GBV among women increased from 4.6/100,000 per day to 16.3/100,000 per day in 2006, and remained elevated at 10.1/100,000 per day in 2007. The increase was primarily driven by the increase in intimate partner violence. GBV experience was significantly associated with increased risk for poor mental health outcomes. Overall, the rate of GBV, particularly intimate partner violence, increased within the year following Hurricane Katrina and did not return to baseline during the protracted phase of displacement. Disaster planning efforts should incorporate plans to decrease the incidence of GBV following a disaster, and to ensure adequate services to people with postdisaster GBV experience.

Violence against women associated with arrests for sex trade but not drug charges

The current study was designed to examine associations between gender-based violence and arrests due to sex trade or drug-related charges among a statewide sample of incarcerated women in Rhode Island. Incarcerated women were asked to participate in brief pre- and posttest surveys of their experiences of violence, sexual risk and substance use behaviors, as part of a study on the effectiveness of a family planning program in a state correctional facility; data from pretest surveys ( N = 447) were used for current analyses. Logistic regression analyses adjusted for demographics were used to assess significant associations between gender-based violence variables (i.e., adolescent intimate partner violence (IPV), adult IPV, childhood sexual assault (SA), adolescent SA, and adult SA) and arrests due to sex trade or drug-related charges. Significant relationships were observed between arrests for sex trade and adult SA (OR = 2.1, 95%CI = 1.2–3.6), adolescent IPV (OR = 2.5, 95%CI = 1.5–4.1), and adult IPV (OR = 1.7, 95%CI = 1.1–2.6); no significant associations were observed for drug-related charges. Findings from the current study demonstrate that experiences of gender-based violence are associated with arrests for sex trade but not drug-related charges. Interventions for incarcerated women are needed to consider and address history of victimization from gender-based violence and its relation to women's historic and future sex trade involvement.

Gender-based violence, relationship power, and risk of HIV infection in women attending antenatal clinics in South Africa

Gender-based violence and gender inequality are increasingly cited as important determinants of women's HIV risk; yet empirical research on possible connections remains limited. No study on women has yet assessed gender-based violence as a risk factor for HIV after adjustment for women's own high-risk behaviours, although these are known to be associated with experience of violence. We did a cross-sectional study of 1366 women presenting for antenatal care at four health centres in Soweto, South Africa, who accepted routine antenatal HIV testing. Private face-to-face interviews were done in local languages and included assessement of sociodemographic characteristics, experience of gender-based violence, the South African adaptation of the Sexual Relationship Power Scale (SRPS), and risk behaviours including multiple, concurrent, and casual male partners, and transactional sex. After adjustment for age and current relationship status and women's risk behaviour, intimate partner violence (odds ratio 1.48, 95% CI 1.15-1.89) and high levels of male control in a woman's current relationship as measured by the SRPS (1.52, 1.13-2.04) were associated with HIV seropositivity. Child sexual assault, forced first intercourse, and adult sexual assault by non-partners were not associated with HIV serostatus. Women with violent or controlling male partners are at increased risk of HIV infection. We postulate that abusive men are more likely to have HIV and impose risky sexual practices on partners. Research on connections between social constructions of masculinity, intimate partner violence, male dominance in relationships, and HIV risk behaviours in men, as well as effective interventions, are urgently needed.

Transactional sex among women in Soweto, South Africa: prevalence, risk factors and association with HIV infection

Sex workers have long been considered a high-risk group for HIV infection, but to date little quantitative research has explored the association between HIV risk and exchange of sex for material gain by women in the general population. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of such transactional sex among women attending antenatal clinics in Soweto, South Africa, to identify demographic and social variables associated with reporting transactional sex, and to determine the association between transactional sex and HIV serostatus. We conducted a cross-sectional study of women seeking antenatal care in four Soweto health centres who accepted routine antenatal HIV testing. Private face-to-face interviews covered socio-demographics, sexual history and experience of gender-based violence. 21.1% of participants reported having ever had sex with a non-primary male partner in exchange for material goods or money. Women who reported past experience of violence by male intimate partners, problematic substance use, urban residence, ever earning money, or living in substandard housing were more likely to report transactional sex, while women who reported delayed first coitus, were married, or had a post-secondary education were less likely to report transactional sex. Transactional sex was associated with HIV seropositivity after controlling for lifetime number of male sex partners and length of time a woman had been sexually active (OR=1.54, 95% CI: 1.07, 2.21). Women who reported non-primary partners without transactional sex did not have increased odds of being HIV seropositive (OR=1.04, 95% CI: 0.75, 1.43). We conclude that transactional sex may place women at increased risk for HIV, and is associated with gender-based violence, substance use and socio-economic disadvantage. Research, policy and programmatic initiatives should consider the role of transactional sex in women's HIV risk, with attention to the intersecting roles of violence, poverty, and substance use in shaping women's sexual behaviour.

“Women enjoy punishment”: attitudes and experiences of gender-based violence among PHC nurses in rural South Africa

Violence against women is pervasive in South Africa where, as in many other countries, cultural values and norms serve to condone and reinforce abusive practices against women. Primary health care nurses, who are widely distributed throughout the rural areas, may appear to be an ideal network for addressing this issue in resource-poor settings. However, based on a qualitative and quantitative study of a class of 38 PHC nurses, this paper emphasises that the nurses are women and men first—and as such, experience the same cultural values, and indeed, similar or higher levels of violence, as the clients they are expected to counsel and treat. Current models for encouraging nurses and other health care workers to detect and address gender-based violence have evolved largely in the context of developed countries, and have focused primarily on acquiring the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to engage this issue in the health care setting. Yet, as this paper suggests, there is an urgent need to understand and address the lived experiences of the nurses, and the duality of their roles as professionals and as community members, before promoting the training of nurses as an effective strategy for dealing with gender-based violence. One such training model was piloted and assessed in this study. The intervention used partnership with a domestic violence NGO to initially focus on dealing with the attitudes and experiences of the nurses as individuals, and to begin a process of self-awareness and sensitisation. Only then did the intervention turn to their roles as professional nurses. Clearly, there is a need for further research to explore these issues in more depth and to inform the development of appropriate training strategies for health care workers, particularly in developing countries. Moreover, such research may well have implications for the design and implementation of training interventions aimed at raising awareness and capacity within other sectors such as the welfare, police and judicial systems.

‘Enough lip service!’ Hearing post-colonial experience of gender-based violence

JANE BENNETT offers her thoughts on the implications of ‘hearing’ the prevalence of gender-based violence in African contexts