Expenditure Gap Research Articles

CSR Spending Deviation from Mandate in India

A clause in the Companies Act of 2013, mandates that companies allocate two percent of their revenues to the CSR initiatives. The goal of this research is to examine the reasons behind the CSR expenditure gap in India. Following our directions, the sample consisted of 200 respondents who filled out the survey. The survey concluded with a question designed to collect data on the proportion of a company's budget allocated to CSR initiatives. Colleagues participated in the pilot research, and their input was utilized to refine the questionnaire. One of the most significant markers of a company's connection with society is its level of (CSR), even though the CSR effect operations cannot always be quantified in terms of financial allocations. The results suggest that the inclusion of this provision is a sensible move on the part of regulators aiming to increase the social responsibility of businesses.

Emigration and fiscal gap in population-exporting region.

This paper analyzes how emigration impacts fiscal gap of population-exporting region in the long term. We construct a general equilibrium model of emigration and fiscal gap and make empirical verification using two-step system GMM model. Among the major lessons from this work, five general and striking results are worth highlighting: (1) the economic losses of emigration are the immediate cause of widening the fiscal gap. (2) in the short and long term, emigration can expand the fiscal revenue gap through the superimposed effect of tax rate and tax base. (3) the gap in fiscal expenditure is widened by the outflow of people in the short term. However, local governments would change the strategy to keep the spending gap from widening in the long run. (4) a positive impact of emigration on the fiscal gap. the more severe population emigration, the larger the fiscal gap. (5) when the trend of emigration becomes irreversible, the subsequent efforts of local governments to expand fiscal expenditure for attraction population would not only fail to revive the regional economy, but aggravate the expansion of fiscal gap. The contribution of research is twofold. On the one hand, it fills the theoretical gap between emigration and fiscal gap because previous studies have paid little attention to the fiscal problems of local government of population outflow. On the other hand, the selection of Northeast China that has been subject to long-term out-of-population migration is good evidence to verify this theory, which is tested very well using the 2S-GMM model. The comprehensive discussion on the relationship between emigration and fiscal gap is helpful to guide those continuous population-exporting regions that are facing a huge fiscal gap how to solve the fiscal gap and unsustainability from the perspective of fiscal revenue and expenditure.

Examining the local government financial pressure on housing prices: evidence from China

The study examines the influence of local government financial pressure on average real estate sales prices. Annual data from the Chinese National Bureau of Statistics from 2000 to 2020 were analyzed based on the vector autoregressive model. Fixed asset investment and the growth rate of the population were included as moderators to analyze their moderating effects on the relationship between local government financial pressure and average real estate sales price. Local government fiscal pressure has a significant positive impact on the average real estate selling price, fixed asset investment, and population growth rate are negatively correlated with average real estate sales price. Therefore, this paper suggests reducing the fiscal revenue and expenditure gap faced by local governments, alleviating the financial pressure on local governments, increasing the proportion of residential land supply, and limiting the dependence of local governments on land finance, to restrain the price fluctuation of the real estate market. Keywords: Fixed assets; growth rate; Housing price; investment; local fiscal pressure; population.

The role of digital financial inclusion in China on urban-rural disparities in healthcare expenditures.

The digital financial inclusion (DFI) provides opportunities to improve the relative capacity to pay for healthcare services by rural residents who are usually underserved by traditional finance in China. This paper provides empirical evidence on how the development of DFI affects the healthcare expenditure disparities between urban and rural residents. We employed the fixed effects model and instrumental variable method to estimate the impact of DFI on the Theil index of urban-rural disparities in healthcare expenditures, using panel data from 31 provinces (2011 ~ 2020) in China. We further adopted a moderating effect model to test whether the intensity of the impact would vary depending on the level of local government health expenditures. The results suggest a negative association between the development level of DFI and the urban-rural healthcare expenditure disparities in China. For every 1% increase in the DFI index, the Theil index of urban-rural disparities in healthcare expenditures would fall by 0.0013. After changing the measurement method for the dependent variable and adjusting the sample, the results remain robust. Moreover, the result of the moderating effect model indicates that, a high level of government health expenditures is conducive to the impact of DFI. Our research reveals that DFI plays an important role in bridging the urban-rural gap in healthcare expenditures. This finding provides new information for addressing the issue of urban-rural healthcare inequality in China. Chinese government needs to accelerate the construction of digital infrastructure and increase the penetration rate of digital tools in rural areas to promote the beneficial effects of DFI. Additionally, it is also necessary for local government to address the unbalanced allocation of medical resources between urban and rural areas, especially the shortage of rural human resources.

Factors influencing the Poverty Depth Index in West Sumatra Province through Panel Data Regression Analysis

The poverty depth index is one of the measures that can be used in measuring the poverty level in a region well. This is because the poverty depth index measures the depth of poverty by focusing on the expenditure gap of the poor against the poverty line. Based on BPS West Sumatra data for 2017-2022, the IKK which was initially at 1,00 rose to 1,04 in 2018, in 2019 it fell to 0,94, in 2020 it fell to 0,92, but in 2021 it rose to 1,04 and fell to 0,8 in 2022. The dynamics that occur in the IKK show that the government's efforts in dealing with poverty problems have not been optimal. Therefore, a study was conducted to determine the model and factors that affect the IKK in West Sumatra Province using panel data regression analysis. After the research was conducted, the best estimation model obtained was the Fixed Effect Model (FEM). The factors that affect IKK in 2017-2022 are average per capita expenditure and human development index.

Multifaceted Regional Educational Inequality: Evidence from Türkiye

ABSTRACT Educational equality is a priority in sustaining economic and human development. This study examines regional educational inequality in Türkiye by considering educational attainment, income distribution, and education spending. Average years of schooling improved in all regions between 2008 and 2020. The Education Gini and Theil indexes indicate diminishing intra-regional inequality while significant inter-regional differences persist. The income Gini coefficient was unexpectedly found to be negatively correlated with equality in educational attainment for the country and three regions. The results also show the disproportionate dominance of the top income group in the distribution of education spending and the share of education in consumption expenditures. The growing gap in educational expenditures between the top and last quintiles accompanies rising educational attainment. The recent achievement in educational attainment needs to be followed by new programs that address social and spatial educational inequality in Türkiye.

Convergence and Disparities in Higher Education Fiscal Expenditures in China: A Regional Perspective

This research investigates the disparities and convergence in higher education fiscal expenditures across different regions in China. The study utilises Gini coefficient analysis and σ-convergence/β-convergence tests to quantify the extent of disparities and explore convergence trends over a twelve-year investigation period (2007–2018). The results shed light on the imbalances in resource allocation and provide valuable insights into the efforts required to achieve a more equitable distribution of fiscal resources for higher education. The findings reveal significant disparities in higher education fiscal expenditures between the Eastern, Central, Western, and Northeastern regions, with the Eastern region exhibiting the largest gap compared to others. Remarkably, the disparity between the Eastern and Central regions is even greater than that between the Eastern and Western regions, emphasising the need for targeted interventions to address regional imbalances. Over the study period, the gap between the Eastern and Central regions remained consistently higher than other regional disparities. Moreover, the research shows a general trend towards narrowing regional fiscal expenditure disparities, with the most pronounced convergence observed between the Central and Northeastern regions. The Western region exhibits slightly larger disparities than the Central and Northeastern regions, possibly attributed to greater fiscal policy support and lower student enrollments. Nevertheless, the fiscal expenditure gap between the Western and Central regions has shown a trend towards reduction. The study also explores absolute and conditional β-convergence, revealing notable convergence patterns in the Eastern and Central regions. However, the Western and Northeastern regions exhibit varying degrees of convergence, indicating the necessity for region-specific convergence mechanisms. To achieve a balanced allocation of financial resources for higher education across regions, the study recommends targeted fiscal policies, additional funding, and improved transparency and accountability. Policymakers should focus on enhancing convergence mechanisms to ensure a more equitable distribution of resources and foster the sustainable development of higher education throughout the country. While this research provides valuable insights, it is essential to consider other potential factors influencing fiscal expenditure disparities, such as policy orientation, economic disparities, and demographic structures, for a more comprehensive understanding. Future research may benefit from qualitative investigations to further explore the complexities of higher education fiscal expenditure imbalances and identify effective policy interventions.

Thực trạng thu chi tài chính của bệnh viện giao thông vận tải Vĩnh Phúc giai đoạn 2019 – 2021

Objectives: The study was carried out to find out the current status of financial revenue and expenditure activities at Vinh Phuc Transportation Hospital in the period of 2019 - 2021. Research Methods: a descriptive cross-sectional study horizontal, using secondary data from the financial statements of Vinh Phuc Transportation Hospital for the 3 years 2019 – 2021. Results: Research results show that the total revenue of the hospital in the period of 2019 - 2021 had increased and decreased unevenly over the years. The state budget for non-recurring expenditures ranged from 7-9.2% of total revenue, which was completely cut by 2021. The hospital's regular operating expenses came from non-business revenue, accounting for 90.8 - 100% of the unit's total revenue each year, of which revenue from hospital fees and health insurance accounts for 60.6 - 100% of the total revenue of the hospital, 66.8%, service revenue accounts for 18 - 32.4%. Expenditure sources increased and decreased unevenly between years, corresponding to the increase and decrease of revenue, recurrent expenditure accounted for a high proportion of total expenditure, from 88.9-100%, of which the main expenditure group was specialized expenditure, professional subjects and personal payments. The hospital's revenue and expenditure gap decreased over the years. Conclusion: In the period of 2019 - 2021, the total revenue and total expenditure of the hospital had increased and decreased unevenly over the years. The difference between revenue and expenditure decreased gradually, the appropriation of funds was made in accordance with current regulations. Keywords: Financial revenue and expenditure, Vinh Phuc Transport Hospital

Consumption inequality between farm and non-farm households in rural Vietnam

PurposeThis study aims to analyse the consumption inequality between farm and non-farm households in rural Vietnam, using the data from the 2016 Vietnam household living standards survey.Design/methodology/approachThe present paper applies the “recentered influence functions (RIF)” in “Oaxaca-Blinder (OB)” type decomposition as proposed by Firpo et al. (2018) to allow for the flexible distribution of the outcome variables and the non-randomness of non-farm employment that violates the classical linearity assumption.FindingsNon-farm households have significantly higher per capita consumption expenditure than farm households for the entire distribution. The gap in expenditure is large at low percentiles and narrowing with higher percentiles. At 10th percentile, the gap is estimated at 27.1%, but it is decreasing to 11.1% at 90th percentile. Most of the gaps are explained by the differences in the observed characteristics between farm and non-farm households such as ethnicity, education, income, internal transmittances and household composition. Non-farm households are endowed with more productive factors that result in higher per capita consumption expenditure.Originality/valueGaps in ethnicity and education are found to be key predictors of the inequality in consumption expenditures between farm and non-farm households, then, government policies that are aimed at increasing access to non-farm employment and education for ethnic minorities and for rural poor households are pathways to improve rural household welfare and hence reduce inequality.

Effect of internal and external remittances on expenditure inequality in Pakistan

The impact of remittances on household expenditure inequality is extensively documented in the development literature. Yet, it is relatively less focused on its effect at the household level. In the context of Pakistan, higher labour migration offers enough scope to examine the expenditure inequality across the remittance-receiving and non-receiving households. This study analyzes the effect of external and internal remittances on expenditure inequality of households in Pakistan. The study uses data from PSLM—HIES 2018–2019 survey. The quantile regression results suggest an unequal expenditure distribution across the household. The external remittance-receiving household is significantly higher in expenditure per capita across the distribution vis-à-vis internal migrant or without migrant households. The study concluded that the current level of endowment is higher in the external remittance-receiving household, which is a significant source of expenditure gap across the household categories. The aftermath of the mean decomposition model suggests that the relatively higher income of the external remittance-receiving household significantly contributes to the expenditure gap across the household categories. The findings from quantile decomposition suggest that external remittances cause more discrimination for the affluent household than the poor ones. The study’s implication suggests some policy measures to ease the access to international migration to improve the expenditure distribution.

The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia

This study examines whether income inequality and poverty are determinants of crime rates across 34 provinces in Indonesia. Three indicators of income inequality and four poverty measures are tested to examine whether the dimension and degree of unequal welfare distribution are linked to crime occurrences. We use panel data from 2010 to 2019 with the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) approach. The findings indicate that higher income levels and wider income inequality are associated with higher crime rates. Our first indicator of income inequality, non-food expenditure, has a larger impact on crime rates than our second and third indicators, i.e., the gap in food expenditure and the Gini ratio. Poverty is also positively associated with crime. The wider the poverty gap (a measure of poverty) and the severity index, the higher the deprivation levels among the poor, which lead to more crime. The significant and positive effect of poverty on crime rates, and the positive nexus between crime, income, and inequality suggest that Indonesia will face a higher crime risk as the country becomes increasingly more affluent. In such a scenario, policymakers can leverage education and investment (domestic and foreign) to minimize the crime rate. The government could also strengthen crime prevention programs, crime settlement systems, and policing in Indonesia, and raise the budget for social assistance.

Effect of External Debt on External Reserves in Nigeria

It is widely held that developing nations are constrained by insufficient funds to build basic infrastructure that would set the pace for capital formation and sustainable growth. Faced with shortfalls in revenue and the need to increase investment in public works, developing countries engage in deficit spending to bridge the gap in funding public expenditure. One source of deficit spending is external debts. This study investigates the effect of external debt on external reserves in Nigeria from the first quarter of 2009 to the fourth quarter of 2022. An ex post facto research design was adopted for the study. Quarterly time series data for external reserves, multilateral debt, and bilateral debt were collected from the Central Bank of Nigeria statistical bulletin and Debt Management Office reports. Philip Perron test was used to test the stationarity of the data and the Johansen cointegration test was utilized to determine the presence of a long-run relationship. Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares technique was used to test the effect of external debt on external reserves in Nigeria. The findings showed that multilateral debt has a significant effect on external reserves in Nigeria. However, bilateral debt has an insignificant effect on external reserves in Nigeria. The study recommends that the Nigerian government should strengthen its capacity in debt negotiation and contracting. This involves conducting comprehensive assessments of loan terms, interest rates, grace periods, and repayment schedules before accepting multilateral debt. Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance through the Debt Management Office should continue to improve its debt monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for bilateral loans. This involves establishing transparent processes to track the utilization and impact of borrowed funds.

Assessing the inequality in out-of-pocket health expenditure among the chronically and non-chronically ill in Saudi Arabia: a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis

BackgroundMany high-income countries have made significant progress towards achieving universal health coverage. Nevertheless, out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditure continues to undermine the effectiveness of the universal healthcare system. In Saudi Arabia, due to the overburdened free public health services, many people opt for alternative healthcare services, risking high OOP payments. The presence of chronic illness further exacerbates this situation. However, there is limited evidence on the extent of the gap in OOP health expenditure between the chronically and non-chronically ill and the associated drivers contributing to this gap. The aim of this study was to assess inequalities in relative OOP health expenditure, estimated as the percentage of income spent on healthcare, between the chronically and non-chronically ill in Saudi Arabia and their associated drivers.MethodsData from 10,785 respondents were obtained from a national cross-sectional survey conducted in Saudi Arabia as part of the 2018 Family Health Survey. Inequalities in relative OOP health expenditure were measured using concentration indices and curves. A Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis was used to assess the differences in relative OOP health expenditure between the chronically and non-chronically ill.ResultsThe results showed that the chronically ill experience a higher financial burden due to healthcare services in absolute costs and relative to their income compared to the non-chronically ill. In addition, there was higher pro-poor inequality (–0.1985) in relative OOP health expenditure among the chronically ill compared to that (–0.1195) among the non-chronically ill. There was a 2.6% gap in relative OOP health expenditure among the chronically and non-chronically ill, of which 53.8% was attributable to unexplained factors, with explained factors accounting for the 46.2% difference. Factors that significantly contributed to the overall gap (i.e. both explained and non-explained factors) included employment status, insurance status, self-rated health, and periodic check-ups.ConclusionThis study underscores the high financial burden due to OOP payments among the chronically ill and the existence of pro-poor inequalities. In addition, there is a significant gap in relative OOP health expenditure between the chronically and non-chronically ill, which is mainly attributable to differences in socio-economic characteristics. This indicates that the existing financial mechanisms have not been sufficient in cushioning the chronically ill and less well off in Saudi Arabia. This situation calls for health policymakers to integrate a social safety net into the health financing system and to prioritize the disadvantaged population, thereby ensuring access to health services without experiencing financial hardship.

Understanding the impact of unequal utilization of medical services on the consumption of resources in hemophilia

ObjectiveUnequal utilization of medical services will have a significant impact on the consumption of resources entitled through health insurance claims of patients. With the proposal of the goal of Healthy China, it is essential to achieve the equity of medical service utilization of patients with rare diseases to further promote social equity and justice. To analyze the consumption of medical resources of rare disease patients, so as to explore how different medical insurance types impact patients’ medical resources consumption. This study pioneeringly used medical data from Peking Union Medical College Hospital. By analyzing the consumption data, this paper fills the research gap of existing studies on the analysis of medical service utilization inequality based on the perspective of insurance participation by examining the effects of different types of insurance coverage on medical resource consumption of hemophiliacs. At the same time, rare disease patients as a minority group have long been neglected in the analysis of medical resource consumption, and this paper fills the research gap of medical service utilization of this group to a certain extent by taking hemophiliacs as the object of analysis.MethodsBased on the medical data of hemophilia patients in Peking Union Medical College Hospital from 2010 to 2020, we analyze the consumption of medical resources of the patients, and use a multiple regression model to explore how different medical insurance types impact patients’ medical resources consumption.ResultsThe study has three main findings. Firstly, the disparity in medical expenditure among different hemophilia patients is quite obvious, and the drug expense accounts for a large proportion of the total cost. Secondly, the ratio of reimbursement is generally low, and there is a wide difference in the amount of reimbursement for different types of medical insurance. Thirdly, the resource consumption of patients with different medical insurance types differs a lot.ConclusionIn order to improve the current medical insurance system and mechanism for providing orphan drugs, we put forward the following suggestions. First of all, the medical security system should expand its coverage to eliminate the medical expenditure gap between different hemophilia patients, therefore better promoting equity under the same insurance type. At the same time, the reimbursement level of medical expenses for patients with rare diseases should be appropriately improved, so as to reduce the financial burden of patients with rare diseases, and promote the realization of economic equity. In addition, society should pay special attention to the disadvantaged groups, reduce the differences between various medical insurance, and improve the level of health and equity of the whole society.

A Supply-Demand Framework for Eco-Compensation Calculation and Allocation in China’s National Key Ecological Function Areas—A Case Study in the Yangtze River Economic Belt

China’s National Key Ecological Function Areas (NKEFAs) provide important ecosystem services but lose significant development opportunities. An NKEFA consists of a few National Key Ecological Function Counties (NKEFCs). China’s central government annually makes fiscal transfers to NKEFCs to compensate for their fiscal imbalance and ecosystem protection costs. The eco-compensation coefficient (ECC), together with the fiscal revenue and expenditure gap (FREG), determines the transfer payment, but the central government fails to provide practical methods for its estimation. This article proposes a framework for ECC estimation by integrating ecosystem service supply (ESS), ecosystem protection cost (EPC), and public service provision capability (PSC) of NKEFCs, and clarifies the criteria and indicators for ESS, EPC, and PSC evaluation. The framework was implemented in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YZEB), and the results were compared with the payments in the current central-to-local fiscal transfer (CTLFT) system. The key findings and conclusions include: (1) The payment in the current CTLFT system mainly depends on the FREG rather than ESS and EPC of NKEFCs. (2) Some counties are notably under-compensated because their ESS or EPC are underestimated, or the province that administers them has a stronger fiscal capability. (3) The framework contributes to fair allocation and efficient use of eco-compensation payments by improving the ECC estimation method and identifying the main stressors and public service weaknesses in NKEFAs. This study gives the following policy implications: (1) Inner-provincial and cross-provincial watershed eco-compensation programs need to be developed to supplement the central-to-local eco-compensation program in the YZEB. (2) Environmental management strategies should be based on the characteristics of stressors and people’s livelihood in NKEFAs.

Campaign expenditures and electoral outcomes in Israeli legislative primaries – A financial gender gap?

The last decade has seen an expansion of party primaries as a means of selecting legislative candidates. Since primaries are rarely subsidized, well-resourced candidates have a considerable advantage, which has an impact on equality, diversity and representation. This article focuses on the well-regulated legislative primaries in Israel, examining the gender gap in campaign expenditures, and its implication for the success of women candidates. The analysis is based on data regarding 365 candidates (97 women and 268 men) who competed in seven primary contests in three parties between 2008 and 2015. Our findings show that male candidates spend on average more than female candidates do. However, this difference is pronounced among new candidates only. Moreover, we find that men do better than women in terms of electoral success and that this electoral advantage is explained by the differences in campaign expenses and the share of incumbents between women and men.

Food Poverty, Vulnerability, and Food Consumption Inequality Among Smallholder Households in Ghana: A Gender-Based Perspective.

We examined gender-based household welfare differences in Ghana among smallholder households. We measured disparities in welfare outcomes (food poverty, vulnerability, and food consumption inequality) across male and female household heads and identified the set of covariates influencing them. The study utilizes a dataset from a farm household survey undertaken in Northern Ghana from October to December 2018. A multistage sampling approach was adopted in selecting 900 farm households. The Oaxaca–Blinder mean and Recentered Inference Function decomposition techniques highlighted the sources of gender differentials in household welfare outcomes. The findings indicate a significant gap in food consumption expenditure per capita and household dietary diversity scores between male- and female- headed households, and these gaps are as high as 28.2% and 18.1%, respectively. However, there are no statistically significant differences in vulnerability to food poverty between male- and female-headed households. The Lorenz curves confirm inequality in gendered households’ food consumption expenditure and dietary diversity scores. This study highlights the existence of systemic female-headed household vulnerability to food poverty in Ghana. This study provides significant evidence of the need for policymakers to address food systems’ structural deficiencies and inequalities with gender in mind.

Cap and Gap: The Fiscal Effects of Property Tax Levy Limits in New York

Abstract This is the first study to examine the fiscal effects of the New York property tax levy limit, using variation from the degree of fiscal stringency across school districts and over time in its first five years of implementation. Based on a difference-in-differences estimator, coupled with an event study specification, we find that the tax limit has imposed a real cap on many school districts; that is, at-limit districts’ total current expenditures per pupil are significantly lower than what they would have spent absent the limit. For those affected school districts, this expenditure gap does not come from spending on teacher salaries or fringe benefits but rather from other instructional salaries/expenses, central administration, transportation, interfund transfers, and undistributed spending. We also find heterogeneity in the constraining effects of the tax limit across different need-based groups of school districts.

Determining fiscal equalization transfers for elementary education to Indian States

This study attempts to determine the fiscal equalization transfers for elementary education using data for 27 Indian States from 2011–12 to 2017–18 and panel data methodology, based on a model adapted from Australia’s expenditure equalization mechanism. It is found that States with larger fiscal capacity tend to spend more on elementary education and the existing transfers mechanism has failed to compensate the lagging States. Using the estimated values from the expenditure model and two benchmarks: all States’ average and top three States’ average, per student expenditure on elementary education, the State specific finance gap and total transfers need are computed. The results reveal that Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra have a relatively large expenditure gap. Given the magnitude of the Centre's budget, the estimated additional transfers seem to be feasible. The findings of the study will be useful for policymakers and other stakeholders to create appropriate fiscal transfers strategies that can enable all Indian States to provide a standard level of elementary education.

Crowding Out Development: Fiscal Federalism after the Great Recession

Since the onset of the Great Recession, austerity has become more common at the national and local levels throughout the OECD. As states pass expenditure responsibilities down to the local level, this causes a shift toward mandatory spending at the local level which may undermine discretionary spending for social and physical infrastructure. We use Census of Government Finance data from 2012 for all county areas in the continental US to model the expenditure gap between current operations and capital investment, and show how this crowd out affects growth. Our structural equation models find fiscal decentralization has direct negative effects on local growth and indirect negative effects on growth by increasing the local current-capital expenditure gap. This local expenditure gap is larger where decentralization of spending responsibility is higher and state aid is lower, especially in places with greater need (poverty, older infrastructure, and rural areas). In contrast to the theoretical claims of fiscal efficiency, we find fiscal decentralization may be undermining local economic growth by increasing the gap between local current and capital expenditure. We argue that fiscal federalism (decentralization) is “broken” in the US because states have structural incentives to shift fiscal responsibility downward to local government, and local governments face increased social and economic need, especially since the Great Recession.