High Performance Expectations Research Articles

In Memoriam: Clark G. Reynolds

March/April 2006 Historically Speaking 49 Afghanistan. Nor should we be too squeamish about what warriors do best: killing. War, John Keegan famously pronounced when challenged to produce a definition, is "collective killing for a purpose." We do it, as do our enemies . It is the obvious tonal contrast, however, between the respective humanity of the Western warrior and the inhumanity of his opponents that explains why we're so reluctant to think of the suicide bomber as a warrior —and we're right not to. But it would be equally misguided to delude ourselves that we can keep the warrior ethos alive in our soul if we continue along the path we are going. In Memoriam: Clark G. Reynolds Donald A. Yerxa Prominent naval historian and contributor to Historically Speaking Clark G Reynolds died suddenly of a heart attack following a jog on December 10, 2005 at his home in Pisgah Forest, North Carolina. He was 65 years old. Reynolds was a recognized authority on the fast carriers of World War II. He is best known for his The Fast Carriers: The Forging ofan Air Navy (McGraw-Hill, 1968), a classic work of naval history recognized by the U.S. Naval Institute as one of the ten best English-language naval books published in its first 100 years. His biography, Admiral John H. Towers: The Struggle for Naval Air Supremacy (Naval Institute Press, 1991), won the Samuel Eliot Morison Prize and the K. Jack Bauer Award. In addition to his work in 20th-century American naval history, Reynolds wrote three books that updated and refined concepts of sea power and command of the sea initially made famous by Alfred Thayer Mahan. Reynolds earned his Ph.D. from Duke University in 1964 where he studied under Theodore Ropp. He taught at the U.S. Naval Academy, the University of Maine, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, and the University/College of Charleston where he received the faculty distinguished teaching award and the faculty research award for 1999 and retired as distinguished professor emeritus in history in 2002. He served two five-year terms on the Executive Board of the International Commission for Maritime History and was a member ofthe Secretary of the Navy's Advisory Committee on Naval History from 1987 to 1995, chairing it from 1987-1989. A lover ofjazz music of the 1920s-1940s, "Doc" Reynolds was a volunteer disc jockey for jazz radio programs from 1973-76 on Maine Public Broadcasting Network and from 1983-2002 on South Carolina Educational Radio. He is survived by his wife of 42 years, Constance Caine Reynolds (who was his typist and proofreader), two sons, and a daughter. I will never forget the first day I met him in 1972 at the University of Maine, where with Robert Greenlaugh Albion he created an extraordinary, albeit short-lived, program in naval history. I was a very green graduate student interested in exploring naval history, and as I made my way down the hall to his office, a booming voice and the aroma of Borkum Riff whiskey blend tobacco greeted me. He was thoroughly intimidating that day. He told me that military and naval history tended to attract "weirdos" who had no concept ofwhat rigorous historical inquiry entailed and that if I studied with him, I would have to be a serious historian with ambitions to make significant contributions to the field. I must leave it to others to assess whether I was/am a weirdo or whether my work in naval history ever reached the threshold of significance, but these were important words to hear at the outset of a graduate career. His deep love of naval history was infectious, and his expectations of high performance from his students showed respect not only for them but also for the important work of the historian . He was the best lecturer I have ever heard, and I left many a class excited with some new insight that altered how I viewed the past. As the student-mentor relationship matured over the years, Clark Reynolds became a great source of encouragement. When I ventured into new intellectual waters related to the interface between science and...

Traditionality matters: an examination of the effectiveness of transformational leadership in the United States and Taiwan

This research examines how the effectiveness of transformational leadership may vary depending on the cultural values of an individual. We develop the logic for why the individual value of traditionality (emphasizing respect for hierarchy in relationships) moderates the relationship between six dimensions of transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness. The hypotheses are examined on leaders from Asia and North America. The results indicate support for the moderating effect of traditional values on the relationship between four dimensions of transformational leadership (appropriate role model, intellectual stimulation, high performance expectations, and articulating a vision) on leadership effectiveness. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

REMOTE CONTROL: PREDICTORS OF ELECTRONIC MONITORING INTENSITY AND SECRECY

Electronic monitoring research has focused predominantly on the reactions of monitored employees and less attention has been paid to the processes that trigger managers' decisions to electronically monitor subordinates. Employing a distributed virtual team simulation, this study examined the effects of dependence, future performance expectations, and propensity to trust on team leaders' decisions to electronically monitor their subordinates. Results indicate that team leaders electronically monitor subordinates more intensely when dependence on subordinates is high or future performance expectations are low. Moreover, team leaders are more likely to monitor in secret when dependence is high or propensity to trust is low. Although team leaders increased their level of electronic monitoring over time, this tendency was stronger when the leader had consistently low performance expectations.

Stress and Coping during the Transition to University for First-Year Female Athletes

The present study explored the sources of stress and coping strategies of five female first-year university swimmers. The results of group and individual interviews revealed the major sources of stress experienced by our participants were training intensity, high performance expectations, interpersonal relationships, being away from home, and academics. The participants utilized social support, emotional release, and humor/fun as their primary coping responses during the early part of their first year. As the year progressed, cognitive coping responses such as positive reinterpretation and task focus emerged. In addition, important people in the athletic context influenced the participants’ interpretation of stress. The results shed light on the dynamic nature of the coping process and offered support for the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: the psychological hazards of "model minority" status.

Asian-American women's performance on a test of quantitative skill was studied as a function of whether their Asian, female, or individual identity was salient at the time of testing. In previous research, ethnicity salience was found to result in enhanced math performance among Asian women. However, the investigators relied on a subtle manipulation of ethnicity salience that likely did not invoke concerns about group reputation nor make salient the common cultural stereotypes concerning Asians' mathematical prowess. We induced a focus on ethnic identity in a manner that was likely to make other people's high performance expectations more salient. Under these conditions, ethnicity salience resulted in diminished ability to concentrate, which in turn led to significantly impaired math performance. Thus, although people commonly hold positive stereotypes about Asians' mathematical skills, making these stereotypes salient prior to performance can create the potential for "choking" under the pressure of high expectations.

Implanting pygmalion leadership style through workshop training: Seven field experiments

Manager training in Pygmalion Leadership Style (PLS) was evaluated in seven field experiments. PLS is manager behavior that conveys high performance expectations to subordinates, creates a supportive climate, and attributes subordinate successes to stable, internal causes. The training workshop was developed across the seven experiments from a one-day familiarization experience to a three-day program that included learning Pygmalion concepts, skill-practice exercises, planning implementation, and follow-up sessions. In all seven experiments, questionnaires measured leader and follower perceptions; in three, performance data were also analyzed. There was little evidence that the workshops influenced leaders or followers. Meta-analysis of 61 effects in the seven experiments yielded a small mean effect size r = .13, p < .01 . The contrast between this small effect and the medium-to-large effect produced by previous Pygmalion experiments is discussed in terms of the efficacy-effectiveness distinction. Ideas for improving attempts to get managers to be Pygmalions are discussed.

Real-time transmission of multilayer video over ATM networks

With today's network technology, our expectations for high performance networked multimedia applications are increasing. However, no complete solution as yet exists for providing integrated services to networked multimedia systems. The difficulty lies in the nature of the multimedia data, basically video and audio, which is difficult to store and transmit. The coded video is sensitive to delay, delay variation, bit errors and losses. Our research focuses on the transmission of multilayer real-time video traffic over ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) networks. This issue covers several aspects of ATM and multimedia networking such as video application layer, ATM adaptation layers, traffic and buffer management. The main assumption in this research is that the real-time video traffic is content based coded and consists of several video objects. A single video source with various video objects introduces the need for multiple priorities. We propose a multipriority traffic management model for ATM networks that includes a new priority cell mapping algorithm, a new priority based bandwidth allocation approach, a new adaptation layer definition, and a new multipriority buffer access control algorithm. Using multipriority traffic will complicate the traffic management, the buffer management and the work of the ATM adaptation layers. On the other hand, by allowing the network to have several priority layers during a connection, the overall quality for real-time video will be increased. To our knowledge, no method exists for managing a single connection for multipriority video traffic over ATM networks. Our model is new and addresses the essential transmission requirements of near future multipriority video coding systems over broadband networks.

A NEW DOUBLY SALIENT PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR FOR ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES

ABSTRACT A new type of doubly salient motor is presented in this paper in which the field excitation is provided by permanent magnets. This doubly salient Permanent Magnet (DSPM) motor is shown to be kindred to square waveform permanet magnet brushless dc (PM-BLDC) motors in principle. However, they are different from the latter in that they are capable of a considerable constant power range when properly designed. Finite Element Analysis and Transient Simulation studies are utilized to investigate the characteristics of this new type of PM motor. A prototype DSPM motor is designed and comparison is made between this new type of motor and other types of motor on the basis of performance of the entire drive. By fully exploiting the merits of modern high energy PM material and the doubly salient structure, the DSPM motor can offer higher performance expectation over many existing motors in terms of efficiency, torque density, torque-to-current ratio, torque-to-inertia ratio etc. with a relatively simple str...

A critical-incident stress debriefing program for hospital-based health care personnel.

Although occupational stress exists in all work situations, the intensity and emotional demands of the health care environment and patient care service delivery in often life-threatening situations place exceptionally high performance expectations and stress on health care providers. Stress associated with dramatic, emotionally overwhelming situations, known as critical incidents, can overcome professionals' normal coping mechanisms, particularly following the injury or death of colleagues, loss of life after extraordinary and prolonged professional interventions, actual or potential threats to professionals' well-being, or emotionally charged crises such as sudden and pediatric deaths (Mitchell, 1982, 1983, 1986a; Mitchell & Bray, 1990). The effects of critical-incidents stress on health care professionals can pose potentially life-threatening hazards to patients, families, or other staff who rely on the competent delivery of timely, complex, and safe interventions (Graham, 1981; Neale, 1991; Patrick, 1981; Robinson, 1986; Spitzer & Neely, 1992). Symptomatology associated with excessive acute or sustained stress may include cognitive impairments such as diminished memory, decision-making capacity, and attention span; emotional reactions of increased anger, irritability, guilt, fear, paranoia, and depression; and physical problems ranging from fatigue, dizziness, migrane headaches, and high blood pressure to diabetes and cancer. Self-destructive and antisocial behavior may also be triggered (Everly, 1990; Mitchell, 1982, 1983, 1986a; Mitchell & Bray, 1990). Professional intervention that addresses occupational stress of hospital personnel becomes crucial to safeguard quality patient care; to maintain employee health; and to reduce organizational costs associated with malpractice litigation, employee turnover, and use of employee health care benefits because of work-related illnesses or injuries. Such concern has contributed to expanded use of employee assistance programs and other supportive interventions (Blair, 1985; Howard & Szczerbacki, 1988; Kunkler & Whittick, 1991; Matheson, 1990; McCue & Sachs, 1991; Mitchell & Bray, 1990). Hospital-based social work departments have offered employee counseling, stress management education, and team development training (National Society for Hospital Social Work Directors, 1987; Spitzer, 1985). Notwithstanding the important contribution of social work in responding to work-related stress among health care professionals, limited evidence suggests the use of critical-incident stress (CISDs) as an intervention option in health care settings. This article reviews the individual and institutional effects of critical-incident stress on health care delivery and use of stress education, defusings, and debriefings as effective interventions with health care personnel. The successful efforts of a social work department using these techniques in a major university hospital system are presented as a model for replication in similar settings. CRITICAL STRESS INTERVENTION Substantial evidence exists that stress management programs can ameliorate psychological and behavioral factors that are adversely affected by excessive stress (Everly & Smith, 1987). During the past 15 years, the Mitchell model of CISD has proved to be an effective stress management intervention with emergency professionals (Mitchell, 1985, 1986a; Mitchell & Bray, 1990; Spitzer & Neely, 1992). Nearly 300 CISD teams exist in the United States, offering intervention to fire, paramedic, police, and other emergency first-responder personnel (American Critical Incident Stress Foundation, 1992). CISD teams of specially trained mental health and peer support professionals use defusings and to provide ventilation of feelings, emotional reassurance, education regarding stress awareness and reduction techniques, consultation, and referral assistance to distressed personnel (Mitchell, 1982, 1983, 1986a; Mitchell & Bray, 1990). …

Defining risk from the perspective of nurses in clinical roles.

Although the nursing literature suggests that nurses generally avoid risk, their willingness and ability to take risk are fundamental to their professional advancement, job satisfaction and patient advocacy. The definition of risk as it pertains in clinical practice, however, may not be synonymous with risk as defined in other fields. This study defines risk in nursing from the perspective of three registered nurses in clinical roles. Grounded theory methodology indicated that 11 risk categories comprised six core concepts. The latter formed the basis for the following: risk in clinical nursing practice is defined by uncomfortable and typically unavoidable role-related situations characterized by high unpredictability and negative or hostile overtones, dependency on others, exceedingly high performance expectations from self and others, unpleasant emotions, and health threats that extend beyond working hours. Findings of this study refute the notion that nurses avoid risks. Risk, ever present in the nurse's clinical practice and environment, requires strategies to minimize its negative impact.

PARULEL: Parallel rule processing using meta-rules for redaction

Although the problem of increasing the speed of rule-based programs has been studied for a long while, so far the level of parallelism achieved under various parallel processing schemes fails to meet expectations of high performance gains. Most of the work has focused on manipulating existing rule programs to accommodate parallel architectures. However, without changing the inherently sequential algorithms encoded in rule form and without using intrinsic parallel rule languages to exploit parallelism, speedup is severely limited. In this paper we demonstrate that to maximize parallelism, manipulations must take place at the algorithmic level in addition to the program level. However, traditional rule languages are not equipped to easily express parallel algorithms. Thus, an inherently parallel rule language must be devised to enable maximum parallelism. We present our initial specification of such a language, named PARULEL. Preliminary performance results are detailed for one test case program. PARULEL is one part of a larger research effort that considers four key approaches to parallel rule processing: inherently parallel execution semantics; the use of redaction meta-rules to allow programmer control of the set of parallel instantiations; an incremental evaluation algorithm that incorporates, in an efficient manner, updates to the initial set of assumptions; and an algorithm that maps a program to a parallel architecture.

Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors

This study examines the impact of transformational leader behaviors on organizational citizenship behaviors, and the potential mediating role played by subordinates' trust and satisfaction in that process. Measures of six transformational leader behaviors (Articulating a Vision, Providing an Appropriate Model, Fostering the Acceptance of Group Goals, High Performance Expectations, Individualized Support, and Intellectual Stimulation), one transactional leader behavior (Contingent Reward Behavior), employees' trust in their leader, and satisfaction were obtained from 988 exempt employees of a large petrochemical company. Matching evaluations of five citizenship behaviors of these employees (Altruism, Conscientiousness, Courtesy, Civic Virtue, and Sportsmanship) were obtained from their supervisors. In order to determine whether transformational behaviors augment the impact of transactional behaviors, their effects on followers' trust, satisfaction, and citizenship behaviors were examined in the context of the effect of transactional leader behaviors on these same variables. The results indicate that the effects of the transformational leader behaviors on citizenship behaviors are indirect, rather than direct, in that they are mediated by followers' trust in their leaders. Moreover, these results were found not to be wholly attributable to the effects of common method biases. The implications of these findings for future research on transformational leader behaviors, trust, and organizational citizenship behavior are then discussed.

PRE‐ AND POST‐ENROLLMENT FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ACHIEVEMENT IN TECHNICAL POSTSECONDARY SCHOOLS

ABSTRACT The effects of pre‐ and post‐enrollment factors on technical post‐secondary school achievement were analyzed using data collected from a well‐known accredited technical college in the south. The results indicated that high school diploma type, gender, race, absences, performance expectations and entrance exam scores were good predictors of initial achievement. Second‐quarter achievement was predicted by student work hours, gender, diploma type, initial achievement and student goal commitment. With the exception of GEDs, no evidence was found for poorer achievement among nontraditional students.

Compact Infrared Continuous Zoom Telescope

For any application where the mutually exclusive demands of moderately wide field of view and high resolution occur, lenses having a variable image scale have an enormous advantage over fixed lenses. In the field of thermal infrared optics, where diffraction limits ultimate resolution, there is therefore an increasing requirement for continuous zoom telescopes. Until recently, however, such telescopes have been precluded due to their excessive length. A continuous zoom telescope has been designed that combines wide maximum field of view with high maximum angular resolution inside an overall size less than that of many conventional fixed-magnification infrared telescopes. This compact size has had to be achieved commensurate with reason-able manufacturing tolerances. The manufactured unit has justified the expectations of high performance.

Perceived psychophysiological control: The effects of power versus powerlessness

The current popularity of biofeedback training in self-control is often linked to its psychological benefits. However, the perception of control, whether veridical or not, may be playing a key role in the therapeutic benefits attributed to biofeedback. A total of 120 randomly assigned undergraduate women received two trials of false heart-rate feedback on a task presented either as biofeedback self-control or as externally controlled, due to physiological response to color of room illumination. Perceived efficacy or inefficacy and direction of suggested change were also manipulated. As predicted, perceived effective self-control resulted in more positive mood, internal attributions, and higher performance expectations; perceived ineffective self-control led to opposite results. Significant interactions suggested an important similarity between self-control efficacy and external-control inefficacy, and between self-control inefficacy and external-control efficacy. Results were related to the concept of personal power and powerlessness and to Bandura's theory of self-efficacy.

Black Mayors As Urban Managers

Black mayors face problems that are fundamentally different from those faced by white mayors because they must contend with constraints on their capacity for leadership not common to big city mayors generally. The heart of their dilemma is that they are, on the one hand, pressured by expectations of high performance, but on the other, handicapped in their ability to live up to these expectations by social, economic, and political factors that rob them of the resources and power they need to be successful in their roles. This paper examines the implications of this dilemma for effective black mayoral leadership. Suggestions are made for steps that might be taken to strengthen the leadership role of black mayors.