Expectancy Violation Research Articles

I Am Not Your Typical Chatbot: Hedonic and Utilitarian Evaluation of Open-Domain Chatbots

With the development of natural language processing (NLP), open-domain chatbots can operate as companions. The success of open-domain chatbots depends on understanding how positive and negative expectancy violations affect both utilitarian and hedonic gratification, which in turn influences user satisfaction and continued use. Therefore, this study examines how violations of expectations influence the hedonic and utilitarian evaluations of open-domain chatbots using the expectancy-violation theory. Participants (n = 204) interacted with an improvising AI chatbot and reported their satisfaction. Results indicated that both hedonic and utilitarian satisfaction were higher when negative expectations were met compared to when expectations were violated. However, no significant difference was found in hedonic gratification between the chatbot’s expected performance and positively unexpected performance. Conversations meeting expectations elicited more utilitarian satisfaction than positively surprising interactions. These findings highlight the dynamics between value types and expectation violations in AI chatbot evaluations.

Violations of Musical Expectations and Emotion

This study investigates the possibility of a relationship between types of violations of musical expectations and perceived emotions. A natural consequence of listening to music is the development of musical expectations, or rhythmic, harmonic, and structural anticipations of what the listener expects to hear. Existing research in psychology and neuroscience demonstrates that violation of these musical expectations has significant physiological and emotional effects on the listener. Through a survey format, participants were asked to evaluate their experience listening to twelve excerpts by providing written responses and completing two rating scales. This allowed for a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of emotion in contrast to physiological measures used in other studies. Nonparametric tests showed statistically significant differences between ranked mean ratings according to type of violation. Thus, this study provides evidence supporting the existence of a relationship between types of violations of musical expectation and perceived emotions in listeners. Further research is suggested for clarification of this relationship and its possible applications in musical compositions.

Expectancy Violations and Discontinuance Behavior in Live-Streaming Commerce: Exploring Human Interactions with Virtual Streamers.

Virtual streamers, as a typical application of AI-enabled digital humans, are increasingly being utilized in live-streaming commerce due to technological advancements and industry innovations. Although virtual streamers present several benefits, there is potential for adverse effects when they do not align with consumer expectations. Drawing upon expectancy violations theory, this study developed a theoretical model to explore whether and how consumers' expectation violations during human-virtual streamer interactions affect consumers' discontinuance behavior. Through an online questionnaire survey of 307 Chinese consumers with prior experience interacting with virtual streamers, this study used a partial least squares structural equation model to analyze the research model. The empirical results indicated that professionalism expectation violation, empathy expectation violation, and responsiveness expectation violation positively influenced consumers' distrust and dissatisfaction, which subsequently led to discontinuance behavior. This study contributes to the literature on live-streaming commerce, human-AI interaction, and expectancy violation theory. Furthermore, the findings offer valuable insights for practitioners in the field of live-streaming commerce by enabling them to formulate preventive or remedial strategies to mitigate potential negative outcomes when implementing virtual streamers.

Technology acquisitions and investor expectations: Reputation and expectancy violation perspectives

AbstractEmploying the organizational reputation lens and expectancy violation theory (EVT), I examine how financial market investors (investors) affect the technology acquisition activity and the likelihood of survival of firms facing technological change. I theorize that when a firm has a growth reputation, that is, investors expect revenue growth in future periods, the likelihood of making an acquisition will increase in anticipation of a positive expectancy violation on the part of investors. In contrast, for a firm that has an income reputation, that is, investors expect shareholder returns in future periods, the likelihood of making an acquisition will decrease in avoidance of a negative expectancy violation on the part of investors. I predict a novel moderating effect of investor expectations—a firm's acquisition activity will exert a stronger positive effect on its likelihood of surviving technological change when investor expectations are growth‐oriented, that is, when there is a positive expectancy violation. Using a multi‐industry sample of industry convergence, a salient form of technological change, I find support for my theoretical predictions. I advance research that examines the reactions of investors to firm strategies during technological change to the domain of technology acquisitions, a salient strategic decision. I also expand the predictive utility of the reputation lens and EVT to the context of firm survival during technological change.

Impression management in the boardroom: How CEO facial trustworthiness influences turnover risk

This paper examines the effect of perceived trustworthiness on the turnover of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and its moderating role in the relationship between firm performance and CEO turnover. We employ a unique dataset comprising headshots of male CEOs in US-listed firms from 2010 to 2019 and a machine learning-based facial landmark detector to construct a composite facial trustworthiness index. Our results show that CEOs exhibiting high facial trustworthiness experience a lower turnover risk. We also find that facial trustworthiness strongly influences the link between firm performance and CEO turnover. Well-performing executives have a lower risk of being dismissed from their positions, and the dismissal risk is even lower among CEOs perceived as having a high facial trustworthiness. Conversely, underperforming CEOs are more likely to be dismissed, and the dismissal probability is greater among CEOs who have been perceived as being highly trustworthy. Our findings are consistent with the predictions of the expectancy violation theory, which posits that trustworthy-looking executives are more likely to be punished if they do not live up to the expectations held by the board of directors.

Striking a Balance: The Effect of Capability and Character Reputation Claims on Crowdfunding Performance

Drawing from expectancy violations theory, we examine the effect of entrepreneurs’ claims about their ventures’ capability reputation and character reputation on crowdfunding performance. We propose that capability reputation and character reputation claims benefit crowdfunding performance—but only up to a point—until crowdfunding backers begin to perceive it as over-claiming (inverted-U relationship). We also suggest the effect of entrepreneurs’ capability and character reputation claims are highly contingent upon whether the entrepreneur has launched a commercial or social campaign. Our analysis of 68,899 crowdfunding campaigns strongly supports our theoretical predictions.

Opening the Black Box: The Underlying Working Mechanisms in Virtual-Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

Although research on virtual-reality (VR) exposure therapy (VRET) in anxiety disorders has primarily focused on effectiveness and acceptability, the underlying working mechanisms have received scant attention. To fill this knowledge gap, we discuss potential theoretical underpinnings of VRET based on three dominant theoretical accounts on exposure: inhibitory-learning theory (expectancy violation), emotional-processing theory (habituation), and self-efficacy theory. Whereas theoretically speaking, habituation and self-efficacy seem plausible candidate mechanisms to explain the effects of VRET, the role of expectancy violation is less straightforward. Because of the simulated nature of VR, some feared outcomes cannot occur, and therefore, possibilities to violate expectancies about their occurrence may be compromised. Empirical evidence on the working mechanisms of VRET is scarce and has important limitations. Avenues for future research are provided. Insights into the mechanisms of VRET not only are of theoretical importance but also can provide theory-based directions to optimize the application of VRET.

Examining Expectancy Violations in Text-Based Communication: an Analytical Framework for Comprehending Human Behavior

Examining Expectancy Violations in Text-Based Communication: an Analytical Framework for Comprehending Human Behavior

A U-shaped relationship between chronic academic stress and the dynamics of reward processing

Despite the potential link between stress-induced reward dysfunctions and the development of mental problems, limited human research has investigated the specific impacts of chronic stress on the dynamics of reward processing. Here we aimed to investigate the relationship between chronic academic stress and the dynamics of reward processing (i.e., reward anticipation and reward consumption) using event-related potential (ERP) technology. Ninety healthy undergraduates who were preparing for the National Postgraduate Entrance Examination (NPEE) participated in the study and completed a two-door reward task, their chronic stress levels were assessed via the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The results showed that a lower magnitude of reward elicited more negative amplitudes of cue-N2 during the anticipatory phase, and reward omission elicited more negative amplitudes of FRN compared to reward delivery especially in high reward conditions during the consummatory phase. More importantly, the PSS score exhibited a U-shaped relationship with cue-N2 amplitudes regardless of reward magnitude during the anticipatory phase; and FRN amplitudes toward reward omission in high reward condition during the consummatory phase. These findings suggest that individuals exposed to either low or high levels of chronic stress, as opposed to moderate stress levels, exhibited a heightened reward anticipation, and an augmented violation of expectations or affective response when faced with relatively more negative outcomes.

Navigating Morality in Parasocial Relationships. Exploring the Dynamics of Affective Disposition, Moral Foundations, and Expectancy Violations in Mediated Relationships

ABSTRACT The morality of a media character’s behavior and its influence on viewers’ parasocial relationships (PSRs) are analyzed based on different theoretical perspectives on media entertainment and psychological theories. Affective disposition theory is used to explain the relationship between moral judgments and character liking. Viewers’ connections with media characters are analyzed in the context of longer-term PSRs. Accordingly, morality is treated as a multidimensional construct that consists of care, fairness, authority, loyalty, and purity. These five moral domains are applied to viewers’ moral foundations and to the behaviors of media characters. Additionally, viewers’ moral expectations and their influence on viewers’ PSRs are considered based on the expectancy violations theory. In an experimental study, the morality of a character’s behavior was manipulated (moral vs. ambiguous vs. immoral), and the effect on viewers’ PSRs based on their moral foundations and moral expectations in the five moral domains was analyzed. The results show that while moral behavior generally strengthens viewers’ PSRs, different effects emerge when viewers’ moral foundations and expectations are considered. The different patterns that emerged between the five moral domains underline the importance of a multidimensional approach to morality in this mediated setting.

Mending the Image: The Role of Crisis Communication and Apology Strategies in Recovering from Brand Transgressions

This study investigates the impact of brand transgression on brand image, with a focus on the moderating roles of crisis communication, religiosity, and the effectiveness of apology strategies in brand recovery. Brand transgressions, defined as violations of consumer expectations or ethical standards, often result in a significant loss of consumer trust and negative shifts in brand perception. Drawing on a sample of 400 consumers, the study examines whether timely crisis communication and well-structured apology strategies can mitigate the detrimental effects of brand transgressions on brand image. Additionally, religiosity is explored as a moderating factor, given that highly religious consumers may respond more severely to perceived ethical violations. The results confirm that brand transgression has a strong negative impact on brand image. Effective crisis communication strategies significantly reduce this impact, while apology strategies contribute positively to brand image recovery. Moreover, religiosity exacerbates the adverse effects of transgression, with highly religious consumers showing a lower tendency to forgive and restore trust. These findings provide valuable insights for brand managers on how to handle crises effectively, suggesting that a combination of clear communication, sincere apologies, and an understanding of cultural and religious sensitivities can assist in maintaining and recovering brand image. The study also highlights the importance of tailoring brand responses to audience characteristics in crises. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Departures of Tainted Outside Directors: A Threshold Approach From Two Competing Theoretical Perspectives

Although a tainted outside director’s social status may serve as a buffer against devaluation owing to an affiliate firm’s corporate financial misconduct, the extent of this buffer effect is unclear. We propose a threshold approach by introducing the expectancy violation perspective, which generates a theoretical tension from the network-embeddedness perspective, to clarify the following question: From which perspective does the buffer effect of social status become more salient? Specifically, we propose an inverted U–shaped relationship between the directors’ social status and the departure of tainted outside directors from host firms. We theorize that when directors’ social status exceeds a certain threshold, the network-embeddedness perspective is more dominant than the expectancy violation perspective. Moreover, a host firm’s external stakeholder attention and board social status moderate the inverted-U effect such that its turning point shifts to the right because such contingencies increase the threshold for the buffer. Using a sample of tainted outside directors penalized for associated firms’ financial misconduct, we find evidence that supports our predictions. Our study helps clarify the boundary between the competing theoretical perspectives of expectancy violation and network embeddedness to explain the phenomenon of tainted director departure.

Expectancy violations after moral transgressions: Exploring the role of moral disengagement on online vindictive word of mouth

Expectancy violations after moral transgressions: Exploring the role of moral disengagement on online vindictive word of mouth

Navigating virtual realities: identifying barriers and facilitators to implementing VR-enhanced PT for youth with chronic pain.

Virtual reality (VR) can enhance engagement in outpatient physical therapy (PT) through distraction and gamification of movement. This study assessed barriers and facilitators to VR-enhanced PT. Data were collected during a feasibility trial of VR-enhanced PT for youth with chronic musculoskeletal pain. Semistructured and informal interviews were conducted with youth participants, their caregivers, and collaborating physical therapists. To analyze transcriptions, content analysis was employed in multiple rounds. Barriers and facilitators to VR implementation were coded using a deductive approach, then an inductive approach was used to identify emergent themes within each deductive code category. We completed interviews with youth participants (n = 9), caregivers (n = 7), and clinician stakeholders (n = 5). Coded barriers included: (1) participant identity and self-narrative inconsistent with the intervention, (2) system-level, structural constraints of healthcare, (3) lack of guidance and leadership from clinicians around VR use, (4) research burnout, (5) expectation violation and disappointment, and (6) missing the optimal treatment window. Coded facilitators included: (1) viewing VR as a bridge to achieving treatment goals, (2) having access to resources, (3) sustained positive experience and immersion in the game, (4) alignment between identity and the intervention, and (5) champion-level collaborations. This study highlights the importance of considering the VR technology, person using the VR, and the context in which VR is being implemented to optimize uptake and acceptability. Adopting an implementation science lens to the field of VR for chronic pain will enhance the applicability and scale of impact.

Poder de la expectativa en la fórmula armónica del placer musical

Why does music move us? What harmonic resources manage to cause a greater pleasant experience in listeners? The aestheticity of music lies in the repetition of forms, in the recognition of patterns. Composers take advantage of that predictability to play with listeners' expectations. Mastering the technique to cause sweating and piloerection in response to a musical stimulus is of great interest to creatives. Based on the publications of the musical theorist Frank Lehman, specialized in the harmony of the soundtracks of epic millennial cinema, this article analyzes some harmonic cadences present in different audiovisual formats to agree that it is in the violation of expectations through chromatisms and after their subsequent diatonic realignment where the astonishment of the spectators occurs. This research connects classical aesthetics with the psychology of music.

From Lay Belief to Advice Adoption: Expectation Violations and Trust in Algorithmic Advisors

From Lay Belief to Advice Adoption: Expectation Violations and Trust in Algorithmic Advisors

How Gender and Expectancy Violations Affect Host Performance on the Airbnb Hospitality Platform

How Gender and Expectancy Violations Affect Host Performance on the Airbnb Hospitality Platform

Taking Advantage of Their Seniority: How the Misbehavior of Senior Tourists Influence Young Adults’ Prosocial Behavior Towards Them

Although the senior tourism sector is widely recognized as a growing market, misbehaviors by elderly tourists is an under researched issue within the field of tourism. This paper offers insights into inappropriate behaviors by senior tourists and explores the responses of young adults toward such instances of misbehavior. Through a multimethod approach, we reveal that the intentional (vs. unintentional) misbehavior by senior tourists results in reduced prosocial behavior in young adults. The social class signifiers of senior tourists who intentionally misbehave significantly influence the responses of young adults, with those perceived to be of a high social class drawing harsher judgements. This effect holds for young adults with high benevolent ageism but is constrained by low benevolent ageism in young adults. Our findings extend the application of expectancy violation theory and moral foundations theory to tourist misbehaviors and we conclude by offering suggestions for improving intergenerational relationships at tourist destinations.

Should we meet in person or on Facetime?

The present study drew from expectancy violations theory, predicted outcome value (POV) theory, and the modality switching perspective to examine online daters who subsequently met for FtF-like communication. Hierarchical regression analyses tested whether online daters’ post-modality switch (MS) expectedness ratings, evaluations, and POV forecasts were related to their: (a) pre-MS length of online association; (b) number of pre-MS partner photos seen; (c) use of pre-MS phone calls; and (d) decision to hold the first FtF-like meeting in person or through video chat. Behavioral and physical appearance expectedness ratings were positively related to the number of pre-MS partner photos seen, and curvilinearly (inverted-u shape) related to daters’ pre-MS length of association. Physical appearance evaluations were positively associated with the number of pre-MS photos seen, while behavioral and physical appearance evaluations displayed positive associations with pre-MS phone calls. Finally, post-MS POV forecasts were positively associated with the number of pre-MS partner photos seen, holding the MS through video chat, post-MS assessments of a partner’s behavioral expectedness, and post-MS evaluations of a partner’s behavioral and physical appearance. An interaction also emerged for behavioral expectedness and evaluation on POV, which implied that negative expectancy violations were more useful than positive violations in predicting a relationship’s potential viability.

Имплицитное понимание неверных мнений: современное состояние исследований

<p style="text-align: justify;">The article presents a review of a number of modern foreign studies of implicit false beliefs in young children with typical development, hearing impairments, autism spectrum disorders, and primates. The results of studies performed using different methodological paradigms for assessing early development of mental models: violation of expectations and anticipatory looking are analyzed. The results of research on the search for the biological basis of the origins of social cognition using functional near-infrared spectroscopy are presented, as well as the results of research on the relationship between possible predictors of theory of mind (understanding the purpose of another's actions, joint attention, implicit false beliefs) and the success of social cognition in preschool age under typical development. Theoretical conceptualizations of two theory of mind systems are described: the minimal one and the theory of mind. Immediate prospects for future research to resolve existing replication crises and prevent new ones are outlined.</p>