Expansion Of Electric Vehicles Research Articles

Merchant EV charging station expansion planning

The significant expansion of Electric Vehicles (EV) creates an uncertain load demand that may pose many challenges to conventional planning methods, especially at the distribution network level. The development of EV technology requires charging infrastructure, which must be considered in the Distribution System Expansion Planning (DSEP). Due to the presence of EV and the load they impose on the distribution system, the planning of EV charging stations is done simultaneously with the DSEP so that the system operator can properly consider the technical constraints of the network and operational constraints. This paper presents a bi-level model for EV charging station expansion planning. The main purpose of the first level problem is expansion planning of charging stations and distribution system. But the charging stations are mostly built by a merchant investor, and they do so when it is profitable and has a reasonable risk. Therefore, the merchant investor should be encouraged to build a charging station in the planned areas. For this reason, in the second level problem, the profitability of the charging station and its risk are examined. To solve this problem, genetic algorithm (GA) has been used. Finally, to test the proposed model, the simulation was performed on a modified 69-bus IEEE network.

Analysis of hybrid active-passive prismatic Li-ion battery thermal management system using phase change materials with porous-filled mini-channels

The rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) has created a significant demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, ensuring safety and preventing thermal degradation of LIBs pose challenges to their overall performance and lifespan. Efficient battery thermal management systems (BTMS) are crucial in achieving long-lasting batteries with high energy density. Thermal management procedures are categorized into active and passive approaches. While active cooling methods are crucial, they consume power. Instead, passive cooling methods are not as influential in fulfilling all roles. This study examines a combination of active (mini-channel) and passive (PCM heat sink) techniques. The effects of employing a porous medium inside the mini-channel are also analyzed to enhance the heat exchange. Influences of different factors, including Darcy number, material, the thickness of porous media, and inlet velocity of mini-channel flow in multiple discharge rates (1C, 2C, 3C), are examined. Outcomes show the PCM heat sink itself can lessen the maximum temperature by about 4.2 to 5 K in different inlet velocities. The hybrid porous-filled channel and PCM heat sink can mitigate the maximum temperature by about 13 K in different inlet velocities and at the maximum discharge rate (3C) at the expense of about 14 % higher pumping power in different conditions.

Analysis of demisting strategies for electric vehicles

Worldwide expansion of electric vehicles is more than obvious nowadays. However, there are still problems related to their driving range. Consequently, solutions for continuous improvement of electric vehicles range are required. In this context, more efficient HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems, including defogging and defrosting, are extremely important as the use of these systems inevitably leads to significant decrease of electric vehicles range. Accordingly, the goal of this study is to investigate demisting windshield strategies in terms of energy consumption (without posing safety road concerns related to driver’s visibility). The approach is based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) full-scale simulations of a vehicle cabin, including special (innovative) model concerning windshield condensation. Different demisting strategies are analyzed, based on the developed numerical model: several supply air velocities for demisting grids and levels of power for heating up the windshield. The results indicate that, under the conditions of this study, choosing lower supply air velocity in conjunction with higher power levels of heated windscreen can lead to more energy efficient demisting strategies. Finally, the methodology proposed in this work can be easily extrapolated for other conditions to achieve comprehensive databases concerning the optimization of windscreen demisting strategies for electric vehicles.

A Novel EA-Based Techno–Economic Analysis of Charging System for Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Qassim Region, Saudi Arabia

Because of the fast expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) in Saudi Arabia, a massive amount of energy will be needed to serve these vehicles. In addition, the transportation sector radiates a considerable amount of toxic gases in the form of SO2 and CO2. The national grid must supply a huge amount of electricity on a regular basis to meet the increasing power demands of EVs. This study thoroughly investigates the technical and economic benefits of an off-grid and grid-connected hybrid energy system with various configurations of a solar, wind turbine and battery energy storage system for the electric vehicle charging load in the Qassim region, Saudi Arabia. The goal is to decrease the cost of energy while reducing the chance of power outages in the system. This is achieved by using a new optimization algorithm called the modified salp swarm optimization algorithm (MSSOA), which is based on an evolutionary algorithm approach. MSSOA is an improved version of SSOA, which addresses its shortcomings. It has two search strategies to enhance its efficiency: first, it uses Levy flight distribution (LFD) to help individuals reach new positions faster, and second, it instructs individuals to spiral around the optimal solution, improving the exploitation phase. The MSSOA’s effectiveness is confirmed by comparing its results with those of the conventional salp swarm optimization algorithm and particle swarm optimization (PSO). According to simulation findings, MSSOA has excellent accuracy and robustness. In this region, the SPV/WT/BESS-based EV charging station is the optimal option for EV charging stations. The SPV/WT/BESS design has the lowest LCOE of all feasible configurations in the region under study. The optimum values for the LCOE and TNPC using MSSOA are USD 0.3697/kWh and USD 99,928.34, which are much lower than the optimized values for the LCOE (USD 0.4156) and TNPC (USD 1,12,671.75) using SSOA. Furthermore, a comprehensive techno–economic analysis of optimized hybrid systems is assessed by incorporating the grid-connected option. The grid connected system results in optimized values of the LCOE (USD 0.0732/kWh) and TNPC (USD 1,541,076). The impact of different grid purchase prices on the levelized cost of energy is also studied. Our results will assist the researchers to determine the best technique for the optimization of an optimal energy system.

Impact of Hot Arid Climate on Optimal Placement of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming more commonplace as they cut down on both fossil fuel use and pollution caused by the transportation sector. However, there are a number of major issues that have arisen as a result of the rapid expansion of electric vehicles, including an inadequate number of charging stations, uneven distribution, and excessive cost. The purpose of this study is to enable EV drivers to find charging stations within optimal distances while also taking into account economic, practical, geographical, and atmospheric considerations. This paper uses the Fez-Meknes region in Morocco as a case study to investigate potential solutions to the issues raised above. The scorching, arid climate of the region could be a deterrent to the widespread use of electric vehicles there. This article first attempts to construct a model of an EV battery on MATLAB/Simulink in order to create battery autonomy of the most widely used EV car in Morocco, taking into account weather, driving style, infrastructure, and traffic. Secondly, collected data from the region and simulation results were then employed to visualize the impact of ambient temperature on EV charging station location planning, and a genetic algorithm-based model for optimizing the placement of charging stations was developed in this research. With this method, EV charging station locations were initially generated under the influence of gas station locations, population and parking areas, and traffic, and eventually through mutation, the generated initial placements were optimized within the bounds of optimal cost, road width, power availability, and autonomy range and influence. The results are displayed to readers in a node-link network to help visually represent the impact of ambient temperatures on EV charging station location optimization and then are displayed in interactive GIS maps. Finally, conclusions and research prospects were provided.

A Comprehensive Review of Electric Vehicles in Energy Systems: Integration with Renewable Energy Sources, Charging Levels, Different Types, and Standards

Due to the rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs), they are expected to be one of the main contributors to transportation. The increasing use of fossil fuels as one of the most available energy sources has led to the emission of greenhouse gases, which will play a vital role in achieving a sustainable transportation system. Developed and developing countries have long-term plans and policies to use EVs instead of internal combustion vehicles and to use renewable energy to generate electricity, which increases the number of charging stations. Recently, to meet the charging demand for EVs, the main focus of researchers has been on smart charging solutions. In addition, maintaining power quality and peak demand for grids has become very difficult due to the widespread deployment of EVs as personal and commercial vehicles. This paper provides information on EV charging control that can be used to improve the design and implementation of charging station infrastructure. An in-depth analysis of EV types, global charging standards, and the architectures of AC-DC and DC-DC converters are covered in this review article. In addition, investigating the role of EV collectors, as well as EV penetration, in electric energy systems to facilitate the integration of electric energy systems with renewable energy sources is one of the main goals of this paper.

The Green Transition Impact on Mineral Raw Materials Supply

Minerals are an essential component of many parts of today's fast-growing clean energy technologies – from wind turbines and power grids to electric vehicles. Demand for these minerals will grow rapidly as the clean energy transition accelerates. The paper examines some prospects for the transformation of the complex relationships between minerals and the energy sector in the green transition, focused mainly on electric vehicles expansion and related mineral resources demand increase.

Investigation of Cost-Effective Electric Vehicle Charging Station Assisted by Photovoltaic Solar Energy System

The impact of increased power demand on electricity grids due to the projected expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) could be lessened by integrating renewable energy-fed EV charging stations. The study aims to evaluate different combinations of electric vehicle chargers’ technology for use in an EV charging station powered by a photovoltaic solar system. Then a technical, economic and environmental feasibility analysis of the EV charging station is presented in this paper.

A Comprehensive Study on the Expansion of Electric Vehicles in Europe

There has been a rapid increase in government efforts to expand electric vehicle markets by deploying fast-charging stations, promoting uptake through greater investment, and by enacting supportive policies. Government support and private investment have contributed to the expansion of electric vehicles in many countries. The aim of this study is to highlight and analyze the most critical aspects of the expansion of the electric vehicle market, regarding technologies, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, opportunities, and barriers in Europe. Our study analyzes the progress of electric vehicles by reviewing recent literature based on technology, policy, and government measurements. This study provides comprehensive information on electric vehicles and perspectives that are critical to policymakers, car manufacturers, consumers, and the community. To achieve favorable results, governments should invest in developing electric vehicles and battery technologies, provide subsidies, and develop charging infrastructure. Furthermore, by analyzing current EV sales in ten countries around the world, we assess the operating costs of electric vehicles. Overall EV cost of ownership is influenced by grid electricity price, cost of financing, location, carbon tax, wind speed, and solar insolation.

A Study on the Cathode Materials Recovery Process Using Various Wet Chemistry

Demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has increased dramatically over the years due to the rapid market expansion of electric vehicles. Current commercial lithium ion batteries mainly contain nickel, cobalt, manganese metal oxides, lithium, phosphates, aluminum, copper, graphite, organic electrolytes and other chemicals. Therefore, the recycling and reuse of used lithium-ion batteries at the end of their useful life are of great interest by many researchers. However, due to the high energy density, high safety and low price of lithium-ion batteries, the difference and variety are large, which poses great difficulties in recycling waste lithium-ion batteries. Lithium ion batteries recycling typically involves both physical and chemical processes. Physical processes typically include pretreatment and direct recovery of electrode materials. These processes typically include decomposition, crushing, screening, magnetic separation, washing, heat treatment, etc. As shown in Figure 1, chemical processes can generally be divided into pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes which include leaching, separation, extraction and chemical/electrochemical precipitation. Recently, recycling technologies for lithium secondary batteries through a direct regeneration process have been attracting attention. Directly regeneration technique has the advantages of short recovery route, low energy consumption, eco-friendly compared to pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes. In order to recover the cathode active material from the separated electrode plate, a process for separating the PVDF binder and the cathode active material is required. In general, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is the most common solvent for the manufacture of cathode electrodes in the battery industry. Although ~99% of the solvent used in electrode manufacturing is recovered, it is however limited in several countries due to negative environmental impacts.In this study, the cathode materials were separated electrode from used lithium ion cell using various wet-chemistry. Chemical, structural, and electrochemical characteristics of the cathode materials and substrate were investigated. Figure 1

Research for Electrochemical & Structural Properties of Recycling Cathode Materials for End of Life Lib

Demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has increased dramatically over the years due to the rapid market expansion of electric vehicles. However, many of the essential components of cathode materials, such as cobalt, nickel, manganese and lithium, are resource-limited and expensive[1]. Therefore, recycling of used LIB cathode materials is very important to conserve resources and the environment. Currently, the lithium secondary battery recycling technology mainly uses wet and dry smelting, but there is a disadvantage of high energy consumption due to the use of strong acid and the smelting process[2-3].In this study, the cathode active material was separated from a pouch-type lithium secondary battery separated from a portable tablet that was over 10 years old and the chemical, structural, and electrochemical characteristics thereof were investigated. The cathode active materials were dismantled from a pouch-type LIB, which was removed from the tablet produced in 2011. The pouch cell was in a swelling state and the OCV was 0V due to internal short is expected. As a result of TGA analysis, the electrode composition was confirmed to be 92wt% of the cathode active material, 3wt% of the conductive agent, and 3wt% of the binder, respectively. The recovery rate of the active material is the best when a mixed solvent including NMP, heating, and ultrasonic, respectively. Through SEM and EDS analysis, copper metal due to dissolution of the negative electrode current collector was found on the surface of the positive electrode. As shown in Fig. 1, It can be seen that the positive electrode active material recovered using the composite solvent is a positive electrode active material that is a mixture of NCM active material and LMO active material. The XRD results shows a well layered structure and a Co3O4 phase due to lithium deficiency. In order to examine the electrochemical characteristics of the recovered electrode, it was reassembled into a 2032 coin type cell and evaluated, and the discharge capacity of approximately 150mAh/g was recovered as shown in Fig. 2. The positive active material recovered according to the experimental results is estimated to be in a state of insufficient lithium, and a lithium compensation process is planned to be additionally performed in the future.

Estimation of critical metal stock and recycling potential in China’s automobile industry

The rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) in China will induce a potential imbalance in the demand and supply of critical metals, which emphasized the importance of recycling critical metals. Evaluating their stock and recycling potential is essential to the electrification transformation in the automobile industry and provides references to the overall national resource strategy. In this study, we identified the critical metals in the electrification transformation of the automobile industry, estimated the stock of critical metals from 2022 to 2050 under multiple scenarios in China, and assessed the recycling potential of critical metals in EVs as well as their economic value. The results show that China’s passenger vehicles will reach 547.5–623.8 million in 2050. According to China’s current energy conservation and emission reduction policies, fuel vehicle (FV) ownership will peak in 2042, at 488.2 million. If strict energy conservation and emission reduction policies are adopted, electric vehicle ownership will increase from 148.3 million to 293.9 million by 2050, leading to a rapid increase in the stock of critical metals. The total stock of key critical metals under the scenario with stringent policies will be 29.27 million tons in 2050, 10.55 million higher compared to the scenario with no ban on fuel vehicles. Based on our results, the recycling of critical metals can be an effective option for the inadequate critical metal supply, especially given the policy context of increasingly expanding EV ownership in the near-term future.

Multi-objective optimization of hybrid energy management system for expressway chargers

Fuel combustion is considered a vast energy source for transportation, resulting in the emission of pollutants into the environment. In contrast, electric vehicles (EVs) do not emit direct emissions and protect the environment from hazardous emissions. The rapid and enormous expansion of electric vehicles in China made electric chargers a crucial component of the transportation management system. The present study suggests a hybrid energy management approach to boost the amount of renewable energy going into the electric charger. Wind turbines and solar power generating modules generate energy for electric charging. Excessive energy is stored in energy storage modules and sent to power grid modules, making reverse supply more flexible. Three optimization algorithms, including PSO, GA, and BBO, were employed to find the highest energy cost and power grid dependence with different combinations. The system is considered on-grid and can purchase or sell electricity to maintain energy balance for electric charging devices. The optimization results show that the highest energy cost in a reasonable scheme can reach 0.034546 $/kWh with a share of maximum renewable energy of 96.50 %. Finally, the balance between energy cost and dependency on the power grid can be reached based on the present analysis findings, as the energy cost of the final equilibrium scheme is 0.057475 $/kWh, with a share of 90.82 % in renewable energy. The proposed study can effectively balance energy supply and demand and further support the global agenda of UN-2030 for sustainable development, especially SDG-7.

Modelling Electric Vehicle Charge Demand: Implementation for the Greek Power System

The emerging popularity of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) is creating new connections between the transportation and electric sectors, and PEV charging will bring new opportunities and challenges to a system of growing complexity. The electrification of transport will increase energy security, reduce carbon emissions, and improve local air quality. The actual expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) will depend on several factors: the evolution of autonomy, the acquisition price, the charging process and infrastructure, etc. This paper provides a guide for simulating the accumulative load profile for EV charging on a national level. The importance of all the parameters and variables involved (deterministic or stochastic) is investigated. Detailed tables and references concerning the distribution of values and the composition of the EV fleet are provided. A multivariate probabilistic model is developed considering the EV classes, weekly and seasonal driving patterns, charging strategies, battery capacities, consumption per EV, etc., leading to an accurate estimation of aggregated EV charging demand. Finally, a net-metering scheme is proposed, in which a photovoltaic (PV) system of a certain size will be able to provide the annual energy needs of the first 10,000 EVs in the Greek market.

Unraveling the role of biofuels in road transport under rapid electrification

AbstractBiofuels have been the predominant option for climate change mitigation in road transport for decades, but the recent expansion of electric vehicles may bring into question their key role. In this work we model the energy use and life‐cycle emissions of road transport activities until 2050 in Norway, a country with a rapid growth in vehicle fleet electrification, to investigate the role that biofuels can play in climate change mitigation, and assess the implications for air pollution and human health. The mitigation benefits from biofuels peak around 2030 at 3.1 ± 0.45 MtCO2eq. year−1, approximately 30% of today's road transport emissions. The largest specific emission savings are achieved from biofuels in trucks and vans, for which the penetration of electric vehicles is slower. These results are consistent under different time horizons and climate metrics. The average impacts on human health are also decreased, but the uncertainty ranges for some biofuels options overlap with those of fossil fuels. Complementary and integrated strategies combining high electrification rates of the vehicle fleet with targeted applications of biofuels can increase the mitigation of road transport emissions. © 2022 The Authors. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining published by Society of Industrial Chemistry and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Analysis of the Li-ion battery industry in light of the global transition to electric passenger light duty vehicles until 2050

Abstract The decarbonization of the transport sector requires a rapid expansion of global battery production and an adequate supply with raw materials currently produced in small volumes. We investigate whether battery production can be a bottleneck in the expansion of electric vehicles and specify the investment in capital and skills required to manage the transition. This may require a battery production rate in the range of 4–12 TWh/year, which entails the use of 19–50 Mt/year of materials. Strengthening the battery value chain requires a global effort in many sectors of the economy that will need to grow according to the battery demand, to avoid bottlenecks along the supply chains. Significant investment for the establishment of production facilities (150–300 billion USD in the next 30 years) and the employment of a large global workforce (400k–1 million) with specific knowledge and skillset are essential. However, the employment and investment required are uncertain given the relatively early development stage of the sector, the continuous advancements in the technology and the wide range of possible future demand. Finally, the deployment of novel battery technologies that are still in the development stage could reduce the demand for critical raw materials and require the partial or total redesign of production and recycling facilities affecting the investment needed for each factory.

A framework for the assessment of electric bus charging station construction: A case study for Stockholm's inner city

Electromobility has gained momentum in the last years following the efforts to reduce transportation-related emissions. In this context, efficient charging infrastructure is vital to foster the expansion of electric vehicles. This paper presents a standardized framework for micro-scale analysis of potential charging locations for electric buses aiming at easing the analysis process and promoting the expansion of electric buses. The framework is tailor-made for the Municipality of Stockholm and tested in two city-centre public transport hubs, namely Odenplan and Slussen. However, the framework can be used in other locations by implementing minimum changes. Connecting charging stations to the power grid is identified as the main drawback in city-centre locations due to their high impact on the grid. Lack of available capacity at nearby connection points results in long distance connections, reaching up to 1 km in some cases. Such connections impact the overall cost of electrification directly, as they may account for up to 63% of the total cost. Although other issues regarding space availability and operational efficiency also need to be addressed, such as the lack of enough dwell time to charge the batteries, the framework proves the suitability of these inner-city locations as charging points.

Recent developments in advanced anode materials for lithium-ion batteries

The rapid expansion of electric vehicles and mobile electronic devices is the main driver for the improvement of advanced high-performance lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The electrochemical performance of LIBs depends on the specific capacity, rate performance and cycle stability of the electrode materials. In terms of the enhancement of LIB performance, the improvement of the anode material is significant compared with the cathode material. There are still some challenges in producing an industrial anode material that is superior to commercial graphite. Based on the different electrochemical reaction mechanisms of anode materials for LIBs during charge and discharge, the advantages/disadvantages and electrochemical reaction mechanisms of intercalation-, conversion- and alloying-type anode materials are summarized in detail here. The methods and strategies for improving the electrochemical performance of different types of anode materials are described in detail. Finally, challenges for the future development of LIBs are also considered. This review offers a meaningful reference for the construction and performance optimization of anode materials for LIBs.

Integrated control and monitoring of a smart charging station with a proposed data exchange protocol

Expansion of electric vehicles’ (EVs’) charging stations is an unavoidable requirement in sustainable cities. Provision of safe protection and control infrastructure is one of the most important requirements for a reliable charging station. In this direction, a centralized protection, control and monitoring unit (PCMU) for smart charging stations is proposed here. PCMU communicates with chargers of the station, protective devices (e.g. relays and circuit breakers), local generating units and all other devices installed at the charging station to determine the station status and to detect/locate faults that may occur in the supply grid of the station. The PCMU includes a self-healing technique which is one of the specialties of smart systems that assists network reliability to increase. One of the major contributions of this research is to propose a protocol for data exchange between the PCMU and the other components similar to the logic used in standard of IEC 61850. Also, potential impacts of implementation of the proposed unit on the most-widely used reliability indices are discussed. The proposed protection strategy is examined via two case studies.

A Review of Extremely Fast Charging Stations for Electric Vehicles

The expansion of electric vehicles made the expansion of charging infrastructure rudimentary to keep up with this developing technology that helps people in a myriad of ways. The main drawback in electric vehicle charging, however, is the time consumed to charge a vehicle. The fast charging of electric vehicles solves this problem thus making it a lucrative technology for consumers. However, the fast charging technology is not without its limitations. In this paper we have identified the technology gaps in EV fast charging stations mostly focused on the extremely fast charging topology. It will help pave a path for researchers to direct their effort in a consolidated manner to contribute to the fast charging infrastructure. A thorough review of all aspects and limitations of existing extremely fast charging (XFC) stations have been identified and supporting data are provided. The importance of DC power network based on free fuel energy sources and silicon carbide-based power electronics are proposed to provide ultra-low cost and ultra-high speed XFC stations.