Exotic Pets Research Articles

Occurrence of antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial resistance genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from healthy rabbits.

Methicillin-resistant globally, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major cause of disease in both humans and animals. Several studies have documented the presence of MRSA in healthy and infected animals. However, there is less information on MRSA occurrence in exotic pets, especially healthy rabbits. This study aimed to look into the antimicrobial resistance profile, hidden antimicrobial-resistant genes in isolated bacteria, and to estimate prevalence of MRSA in healthy rabbits. Two-hundreds and eighteen samples, including 42 eyes, 44 ears, 44 oral, 44 ventral thoracic, and 44 perineal swabs, were taken from 44 healthy rabbits that visited the Prasu-Arthorn Animal Hospital, in Nakornpathom, Thailand, from January 2015 to March 2016. The traditional methods of Gram stain, mannitol fermentation, hemolysis on blood agar, catalase test, and coagulase production were used to confirm the presence of Staphylococcus aureus in all specimens. All bacterial isolates were determined by antimicrobial susceptibility test by the disk diffusion method. The polymerase chain reaction was used to identify the antimicrobial-resistant genes (blaZ, mecA, aacA-aphD, msrA, tetK, gyrA, grlA, and dfrG) in isolates of MRSA with a cefoxitin-resistant phenotype. From 218 specimens, 185 S. aureus were isolated, with the majority of these being found in the oral cavity (29.73%) and ventral thoracic area (22.7%), respectively. Forty-seven (25.41%) MRSAs were found in S. aureus isolates, with the majority of these being found in the perineum (16, 34.04%) and ventral thoracic area (13, 27.66%) specimens. Among MRSAs, 29 (61.7%) isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. Most of MRSA isolates were resistant to penicillin (100%), followed by ceftriaxone (44.68%) and azithromycin (44.68%). In addition, these bacteria contained the most drug-resistance genes, blaZ (47.83%), followed by gyrA (36.17%) and tetK (23.4%). This study revealed that MRSA could be found even in healthy rabbits. Some MRSAs strains were MDR-MRSA, which means that when an infection occurs, the available antibiotics were not effective in treating it. To prevent the spread of MDR-MRSA from pets to owners, it may be helpful to educate owners about effective prevention and hygiene measures.

Investigation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus argenteus from wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand.

In the past, the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in both humans and animals has increased across Thailand. Staphylococcus argenteus has been associated with infections among humans, exotic pets, and livestock. Both species have been identified in non-human primate species from geographically diverse locations but not from non-human primates in Thailand. This study aimed to determine the presence of MRSA/methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and S. argenteus isolates collected from buccal swab samples in Macaca fascicularis at Kosumpee Forest Park (KFP), Maha Sarakham, Northeast Thailand. Aseptic buccal swab samples were collected from 30 free-ranging macaques in November 2018. All isolates were tested using multiple biochemical tests and S. aureus latex slide agglutination test. Presumptive S. aureus isolates were tested for the presence of the mecA gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. The isolates were phenotypically determined to be resistant to a β-lactam antibiotic using the disk diffusion method with a 30 mg cefoxitin disk. The isolates were analyzed by PCR for the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) gene to distinguish S. argenteus from S. aureus. Fifteen macaques (50%) were colonized with S. aureus and 21 isolates were characterized. Three of the macaques carried both the MRSA and MSSA isolate. One animal carried both MRSA and S. argenteus isolate, and one animal carried only S. argenteus. The NRPS gene analysis confirmed that 2 isolates (9.52%) were S. argenteus and 19 isolates (90.48%) were S. aureus [five MSSA and 14 MRSA]. This study is the first to identify MRSA/MSSA and S. argenteus in wild free-ranging M. fascicularis from Thailand at the KFP in Maha Sarakham. This study is also the first report on the occurrence of S. argenteus carriage in M. fascicularis from Thailand.

Euthanasia Complications in Non-Domestic Species

There are very few studies describing euthanasia complications in non-domestic species. The goal of this study was to survey veterinarians to determine what complications may commonly occur during the euthanasia of non-domestic species. An online survey was sent to seven professional organization listservs containing veterinarians most likely to practice on non-domestic species. Forty-one cases of euthanasia complications were reported. The most common taxa reported were mammals, (23/41, 56%), followed by avian (8/41, 20%), reptile (7/41, 17%), and fish (3/41, 7%). Most animals were reported to have been anesthetized prior to euthanasia (28/41, 68%). The most common method of euthanasia was pentobarbital (27/41, 66%). The reported euthanasia complications included “took an excessive amount of euthanasia solution” (12/41, 29%), “heart would not stop” (9/41, 22%), “animal awoke at a later time” (4/41, 10%), “a secondary method of euthanasia was required” (4/41, 10%), and “other” (12/41, 29%). This study reports complications that can occur during the euthanasia of non-domestic species. The concept of dysthanasia, a euthanasia with an undesirable outcome, has not been previously discussed in the context of zoo, wildlife, aquarium, and exotic pet practice. Strategies to reduce dysthanasia from both animal and human perspectives are explored, including alternative euthanasia techniques, principal-based euthanasia, and mental health implications.

Genomic analysis of a multidrug methicillin-resistant staphylococcus epidermidis recovered from the urine of a guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) with suspected pyelonephritis.

Staphylococcus epidermidis is an emerging pathogen causing infant pyelonephritis. There is a lack of genomic data on Staphylococcus epidermidis as the etiology of pyelonephritis and its resistant determinants. In this study, we have conducted a genomic and microbiologic investigation of an S. epidermidis recovered from the urine of a guinea pig with suspected pyelonephritis in Brazil. The genome was sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform and de novo assembled using SPades. Resistome, virulome, and plasmidome were in silico predicted using bioinformatics tools. Data analysis revealed that S. epidermidis USP-LZB-G06 belonged to sequence type ST332. Strikingly, a broad resistome (antibiotics, hazardous heavy metals, and biocides) was predicted, including the presence of the clinically relevant mecA, blaZ, and qacA efflux pump genes. SNP-based analysis revealed that strain USP-LZB-G06 was clustered along mecA positive S. epidermidis strains of ST332 isolated between 2008 and 2016 from humans in Australia and the United States of America. Our results indicate that the detection of this microorganism should be considered as a urinary tract infection agent in exotic pets, particularly guinea pigs. In addition, there is an urgent need to update veterinarians regarding the detection and therapeutic management of these microorganisms.

Sedative Effect of Ketamin-Midazolam Administered at Acupoint GV20 Compared to Intramuscular Route in Blue-Fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva): a Pilot Study.

The growth of exotic pet medicine is leading to fast developments in clinical investigations on birds. Acupuncture, specifically pharmacopuncture, offers safe chemical restraint options. To investigate pharmacopuncture at acupoint GV20 in blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) using ketamine and midazolam. Sixteen healthy birds were distributed into four groups (C: intramuscular control; 1/2 C: 1/2 dose intramuscular control; 1/2 GV20: 1/2 dose at acupoint GV20; 1/5 GV20: 1/5 dose at acupoint GV20). Degree of sedation, latency, recuperation time, heart and respiratory rate, and body temperature were measured. Quantitative data were analyzed by a Student's t-test. The C, 1/2 C, and 1/2 GV20 groups showed the same degree of sedation. The 1/2 GV20 group showed longer latency times (6 ± 2.1) than the 1/2 C (2.5 ± 0.5) group. Sedation time did not differ between the C (28 ± 9.8), 1/2 C (30.5 ± 8.6), and 1/2 GV20 (41 ± 22.24) groups. The 1/2 GV20 group recuperated faster (13.7 ± 3.7) than the C group (64.2 ± 3.5). The C and 1/2 C groups showed tremors and slow and unstable recovery. Two animals in the C group showed mild hypothermia (38°C). The use of 1/2 GV20 was effective and safe to sedate blue-fronted Amazon parrots without side effects, providing easy, stable, and fast recovery. The use of 1/5 GV20 had a shorter sedation time. These findings show that the combination of acupuncture and drugs provides new possibilities for efficient anesthetic protocols with fewer side effects in birds.

“A (tiger) king's ransom”: Dark personality features predict endorsement of exotic animal exploitation

Individuals with different personality traits likely hold different attitudes about animal care and conservation and may reflect differently on exposure to media programming such as the controversial Tiger King: Murder, Mayhem, and Madness documentary. We surveyed 116 community and 473 college participants that had and had not viewed the documentary and examined the association between traits measured by the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form and the Short Dark Triad scales and endorsement of exotic pet ownership and unaccredited zoos. Those that viewed the documentary had more negative attitudes toward exotic pet ownership and unaccredited zoos in general, but having low negative affect, low empathic concern, high antagonism, and psychopathy predicted endorsement of exotic pet ownership and unaccredited zoos regardless of whether participants viewed Tiger King. Being male and high in narcissism additionally predicted positive attitudes toward exotic animal ownership. Respondents reported feeling more positively about exotic pet ownership after viewing Tiger King if they were high in narcissism and low in empathy, supporting the hypothesis that individuals high in dark traits and individuals low in empathy may be more supportive of exploitation of exotic animals and therefore less sympathetic to issues surrounding animal welfare. Future research should further identify the role of personality in exotic pet ownership and endorsement of controversial and inhumane animal activities.

Seeking serpents: Ball python trade in Benin, West Africa

Ball pythons are traded as bushmeat, leather and belief-based medicine in West Africa, and specimens are exported in large numbers for the exotic pet trade. Here, we focused on understanding the purpose and socio-economic context of this trade in Benin through interviews with 44 actors involved in the trade of this species. We provided a snapshot of trade dynamics during a period when hunters are not predominantly actively involved in supplying eggs, neonates and gravid females for ranching and export as exotic pets. Our findings revealed that hunters and traders were largely focused on supplying the bushmeat and medicine markets in West Africa during this time. We estimated that the 21 collectors engaged in hunting in our study collectively hunt between 576 and 5,083 ball pythons from the wild each year. Collection rates reported by some suggests that they could earn more than 15,000 USD from ball python sales in bushmeat markets annually. Ball pythons hunted in Benin were mainly sold to local customers as “bushmeat” (53%) or for belief-based uses (39%) (including “fetish”, “medicinal products” and “voodoo”). However, cross-border trade with neighboring countries of Togo, Nigeria, and Ghana (or even further) also occurred. Although profitable for some, the scale of this practice, together with the widely reported decline in ball python populations in Benin, raises concern about the sustainability and long-term economic viability of this type of large-scale commercial wildlife trade in West Africa, especially as it occurs alongside extensive ranching practices to support the exotic pet trade.

Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Infections: An Indian Perspective.

Emerging and re-emerging viral infections pose a constant threat, especially in healthcare settings. Viral infections can be thought of as an ecological system, like a forest or a pond, with different species competing for resources. Pandemics tend to occur when there is a disruption to this ecosystem, such as introducing a strain of virus into humans or animals that they have no immunity against. Around 60% of human infectious diseases and 75% of emerging infections are zoonotic, with two-thirds originating in wildlife. There is an ongoing risk of viral diseases as the human population continues to grow and the rate of urbanization increases. The emergence and re-emergence of viral diseases are influenced by a variety of virologic and environmental factors. These factors can be roughly categorized as affecting humans, the environment and/or ecology, and viruses. The spread of zoonotic diseases among humans can be prevented by reducing the transmission risk associated with wildlife and exotic pets through education, legislation, and behavioral change programs that target individuals at risk for exposure.

Monkeypox: An Emerging Disease.

Until the month of April 2022, cases of monkeypox virus infection in humans were hardly documented outside of the endemic African regions. There are cases now throughout the world. Infected exotic pets have taken the monkeypox virus out of Africa. Following the universal eradication of smallpox in the 1970s, occurrences of monkeypox have attracted attention on a global scale. The western hemisphere and European nations are seeing the majority of the monkeypox infections linked to the 2022 epidemic. Numerous groups are working on contact-tracing initiatives, but it is still unclear what started this outbreak. The precise cause of monkeypox is uncertain, as the virus's origins have been linked to a number of rodents and small animals. Testing for monkeypox DNA from a patient using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or viral culture isolation material can both be used to confirm monkeypox infection. Monkeypox is from the family: Poxviridae, subfamily: chordopoxvirinae, genus: orthopoxvirus and species: Monkeypox virus. The DNA virus monkeypox virus (MPXV), which causes the zoonotic illness MPX, or monkeypox, is divided into two genetic clades: The Congo Basin (CB) and the west Africa (WA) clades. Monkeypox's true impact on public health is uncertain.

Monkeypox: The Re-emerging Terror.

Monkeypox is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus called human Monkeypox. It has symptoms that resemble or are pretty similar to smallpox. Monkeypox virus belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus, which also includes cowpox, vaccinia, and variola viruses. The World Health Organization confirmed in 1970 that the primary virus is the Orthopoxvirus infecting humans after smallpox elimination. Clinically distinguishing the condition from varicella and smallpox is challenging for a clinician. Although the mortality rate of this disease is low, new tests are being tried and studied, which are required for a more accurate and quick diagnosis because the lab diagnosis is the key to the detection of illness and its monitoring. The illness or the virus is endemic to parts of western and central Africa. Surveillance in underdeveloped rural regions is challenging but manageable with evidence-based techniques and training materials for public health professionals. However, as in the present scenario, the disease is having a worldwide outbreak in various countries, and recently India detected its first case on 15 July 2022 in New Delhi. The widespread disease is due to trading exotic pets and international travel. Since smallpox vaccinations are not administered to people regularly, epidemiological studies are required. New medications and vaccines provide hope for treating and preventing Monkeypox; however, further study is required before they can be used effectively. Also, there is a requirement for advanced scientific studies in the etiology, epidemiology, and biological structure of the virus in the endemic zones to know and halt the spread of infection to humans.

African Bush Viper Envenomation: A Case Report

Atheris squamigera envenomation is an infrequently documented occurrence in the United States (US). Cases of envenomation may induce severe coagulopathies, renal failure, and potentially life-threatening hemorrhage. Currently, there are no antivenoms specific to the Atheris genus, but there have been documented cases of the use of antivenoms for other species. A 26-year-old man presented to the emergency department (ED) complaining of swelling and discomfort in his left foot after being bitten by an Atheris squamigera that he kept as a pet.After performing a physical exam, it was noted that the patient’s envenomation was likely mild. Throughout his hospital stay, he developed lab abnormalities, most notably an elevated D-dimer and low fibrinogen. His clinical symptoms improved after a short stay, and he did not require antivenom treatment. This case highlights a rare, but potentially life-threatening envenomation that may be encountered in the US due to the continued practice of exotic pet ownership and sales. Moreover, procurement of antivenom for non-native species poses a unique challenge to US physicians responsible for treating these patients.

Detection of Giardia duodenalis Zoonotic Assemblages AI and BIV in Pet Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicanus) in Bangkok, Thailand.

Simple SummaryPrairie dogs are native to the United States, Canada, and Mexico. They have been brought to Thailand and become popular as exotic pets and providing humans with exotic pets in close-contact environments. Prairie dogs have been known to carry several waterborne protozoan pathogens. One of those pathogens is known as Giardia, a flagellate protozoan parasite which can cause gastrointestinal illness in humans and other animals. This study has identified the Giardia parasite in the feces of prairie dogs. There were 13% of prairie dogs pets in Bangkok, Thailand that carried the Giardia parasite. We also found that the parasite was categorized as a human parasite. Therefore, there was potential risk that prairie dogs could contract a Giardia infection from humans as a source, and that humans could receive the parasite from their exotic pets via the fecal-oral route in shared environments. We suggest that exotic pet owners should pay more attention to effective sanitation and provide clean food and water for their exotic pets. Owners should bring their exotic pets for veterinary services and screening of zoonotic pathogens using fecal examination regularly. Treatment can successfully cure the infected pets as well as prevent the spreading of pathogen to the environment. Giardia is a flagellate protozoa that can be transmitted via direct contact and by consuming contaminated water. It is pathogenic in humans and various other animals, including exotic pets. Pet prairie dogs are popular in Thailand, but they have not been investigated regarding giardiasis. Giardia infection was measured, and genetic characterization was performed to investigate the zoonotic potential of Giardia carried by pet prairie dogs. In total, 79 fecal samples were examined from prairie dogs visiting the Kasetsart University Veterinary Teaching Hospital during 2017–2021. Simple floatation was conducted. Two Giardia-positive samples were submitted for DNA extraction, PCR targeting the Giardia ssu rRNA, tpi and gdh genes was performed, and genetic characterization using sequencing analysis was conducted. Risk factors associated with Giardia infection were analyzed. Giardia infection was found in 11 out of the 79 pet prairie dogs (13.9%). Giardia infection was significantly higher in male prairie dogs (p = 0.0345). Coccidia cysts (12.7%), the eggs of nematodes (6.3%), and amoeba cysts (2.5%) were also detected. Genetic characterization of the two Giardia-positive samples revealed that they were G. duodenalis assemblage A, sub-genotypes AI and assemblage B, and sub-genotype BIV, the zoonotic assemblages. This was the first report of Giardia infection in pet prairie dogs in Bangkok, Thailand. The results revealed that these pet prairie dogs in Thailand were infected with zoonotic assemblages of G. duodenalis sub-genotype AI, which might have been derived from animal contaminants, whereas sub-genotype BIV might have been derived from human contaminants. Owners of prairie dogs might be at risk of giardiasis or be the source of infection to their exotic pets.

The conservation paradox of critically endangered fish species: Trading alien sturgeons versus native sturgeon reintroduction in the Rhine-Meuse river delta

Sturgeons rank among the most endangered vertebrates in the world. Yet, the dwindling of wild sturgeon populations stands in stark contrast to their thriving status in aquaculture. Moreover, through the exotic pet trade, sturgeons are introduced outside their natural ranges where they may compete and hybridize with native species and transmit parasites and diseases. Here, we present an in-depth inventory of alien sturgeons in the delta of the rivers Rhine and Meuse, because several countries consider reintroduction of the native, critically endangered European sturgeon (Acipenser sturio). Our study is based on (a) an inventory of the industry of sturgeon cultivation; (b) reports on spread of alien sturgeons; (c) an analysis of pathways for introduction and spread; and (d) a risk assessment using the Harmonia+ protocol. In total, 11 alien Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) were traded across an intricate network of >1000 distribution points in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany. Circa 2500 alien sturgeons were reported from 53 angling ponds and 64 other lakes and ponds, whereas circa 500 alien sturgeons were reported widespread across hydrologically connected waters. Species that posed the highest risk of introduction, establishment and spread are Siberian sturgeon (A. baerii), Russian sturgeon (A. gueldenstaedtii) and Sterlet (A. ruthenus). We recommend to implement stringent trade regulations and practical solutions to prevent spread of alien sturgeons. Measures must preferably be taken at the spatial scale of river basins.

Commercial trade of wild animals: examining the use of the IUCN Red List and CITES Appendices as the basis for corporate trade policies

Wildlife exploitation is considered a predominant factor driving global biodiversity loss and zoonotic disease transmission, in addition to a range of concerns for animal welfare and ecosystem health. One of the ways in which wild animals are exploited is for commercial trade as exotic pets, fashion products, luxury foods, traditional medicine, entertainment, ornaments and more. While the trade in some wildlife species is restricted or prohibited under various domestic and international laws, many species are not bound by legal protection and are traded in largely unmonitored numbers with the potential for severe consequences. Companies, particularly large e-commerce platforms, are increasingly adopting policies to restrict the legal trade in wild animals. Due to the absence of clear guidelines for corporate services of wildlife trade, these policies commonly adopt pre-determined species lists, such as the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendices, as the basis for ‘negative lists’ to guide which species to restrict trade in. However, these databases were not intended for this application and there has been no assessment of their use for this purpose. Here, we summarise and compare the scale and scope of species listed on the IUCN Red List and the CITES Appendices, to discuss how much additional protection these lists provide wild animals if used as policy instruments to guide corporate wildlife trade restrictions beyond the relevant legal bounds. Based on our results, we discuss why that using one list or another would likely omit taxa of conservation concern from protection, and using both lists in conjunction would still not comprehensively reflect all species vulnerable to extinction as a result of exploitation. Further, neither list can mitigate the animal welfare and public health concerns inherently associated with all commercial wildlife trade. We recommend that companies looking to develop policies relating to commercial wildlife trade consider going beyond the scope of predetermined species lists to help mitigate the harmful effects of commercial wildlife exploitation via trade for all wild animals.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria Isolated from Exotic Pets: The Situation in the Iberian Peninsula.

Simple SummaryAntimicrobial resistance in exotic pets has not been widely studied. The close contact of this type of animal with the human population increases the risk of untreatable bacterial infections, which represent a veterinary and human public health challenge. We analyze the database of microbiological diagnoses and the bacterial susceptibility to antimicrobials in exotic pets from the Iberian Peninsula. We found that the most prevalent bacteria in birds and mammals were Staphylococcus spp., while in reptiles, they were the Pseudomonas spp. In addition, Pseudomonas showed the highest levels of resistance among the three animal groups, and on the other hand, the multidrug resistance level was significant in Enterobacterales. Most of the bacteria we found have zoonotic importance. The prevalent bacteria are resistant to antimicrobials that have been described as critical for human use, implying that the threat of antimicrobial resistance extends not only to domestic and companion animals but also to humans due to the potential transmission of resistant genes. Once seen from the lens of the One-Health paradigm, these findings are concerning, as they highlight the risk of spreading antibiotic-resistant genes between different individuals and their environments. In order to prevent antibiotic resistance, we encourage the development of joint work between animal and human health specialists.Literature related to antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria in exotic pets is minimal, being essential to report objective data on this topic, which represents a therapeutic challenge for veterinary medicine and public health. Between 2016 and 2020, laboratory records of 3156 exotic pet specimens’ microbiological diagnoses and antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) results were examined. The samples were classified into three animal classes: birds (n = 412), mammalia (n = 2399), and reptilian (n = 345). The most prevalent bacteria in birds and mammals were Staphylococcus spp. (15% and 16%), while in reptiles they were Pseudomonas spp. (23%). Pseudomonas was the genus with the highest levels of AMR in all animal groups, followed by Enterococcus spp. By contrast, Gram-positive cocci and Pasteurella spp. were the most sensitive bacteria. Moreover, in reptiles, Stenotrophomonas spp., Morganella spp., and Acinetobacter spp. presented high levels of AMR. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria were isolates from reptiles (21%), birds (17%), and mammals (15%). The Enterobacterales had the highest MDR levels: S. marcescens (94.4%), C. freundii (50%), M. morganii (47.4%), K. pneumoniae (46.6%), E. cloacae (44%), and E. coli (38.3%). The prevalence of MDR P. aeruginosa strains was 8%, detecting one isolate with an XDR profile. Regarding antimicrobial use, many antibiotics described as critically important for human use had significant AMR prevalence in bacteria isolated from exotic pets. Under the One-Health approach, these results are alarming and of public health concern since potential transmission of AMR bacteria and genes can occur from exotic pets to their owners in both senses. For this reason, the collaboration between veterinarians and public health professionals is crucial.

Opinions and knowledge of veterinary students relating to exotic non-mammal pet animals and their welfare

This study aimed to identify the opinions and knowledge of Croatian veterinarians-to-be relating to exotic pet birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish, and their welfare. A total of 589 (87%) veterinary students from all six years of the integrated undergraduate and graduate study programme were surveyed in the 2019-2020 academic year. Student opinions and knowledge were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale and the following statements: the level of cognition, sentience and welfare compromise in pet animals observed; the importance of biological functioning, emotional states and natural living for their welfare; their acceptability as pets and owner awareness; the level of risk posed by these pet animals to other animals, public health and safety, and the environment; and the level of knowledge students considered themselves to have about their feeding, housing, health and behaviour. Students provided neutral responses to or disagreement with most of the statements, in particular for animals other than birds, with no significant differences between study years. Accordingly, the study results point to the need for additional student education on exotic non-mammal pets, and can serve for the upgrading of the veterinary curriculum in the field, having implications not only for the welfare of these animals but also for other animals, public health and safety, and environmental protection.

Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend.

Simple SummaryCurrently, there is a wide variety of insect-based pet foods and treats; however, there are several questions about the nutritional contribution of insects for dogs and cats, their health effects, safety aspects and the legal framework for their use as ingredients or feed. The insect-based ingredients used are mainly meal and fat from black soldier fly larvae, mealworm larvae and adult house crickets. There are few studies on the use of insects as food ingredients for pets, and most of them have studied some aspects in dogs. It has been said that they do not affect health, are well accepted and tolerated, do not alter the microbiota and could have the potential to be used as hypoallergenic ingredients. Insects provide a high nutritional value, with a high content of protein and amino acids with good digestibility for dogs. In cats, there is scarce information and more studies are needed. In exotic pets, their use is generalized. Dog owners are willing to use insects as ingredients, but in processed formats such as meal or as part of food or treats. Future research should focus on safety issues and effects on the health, nutrition and feeding behavior of traditional pets, such as dogs and cats.The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.

Tips for handling common avian and reptile pets

Background: Exotic pets are increasingly being presented to veterinary practices. Familiarity with basic handling techniques of commonly presented species helps significantly in building client confidence and improving the client bond with the practice. Basic handling skills are integral in enabling a clinical examination, as well as being the first step in obtaining appropriate diagnostic samples. Species size can vary dramatically which will have a bearing on particular techniques used, but techniques have a degree of commonality. This article will consider handling of common pet avian and reptile species.Aim of the article: This article aims to provide handling advice for common avian and reptile pets, but not for all of the 20,000+ species that exist; for example, reference to crocodilia, venomous species, large terrestrial chelonia and large flightless birds are beyond the scope of this article.

The Potential Impacts by the Invasion of Insects Reared to Feed Livestock and Pet Animals in Europe and Other Regions: A Critical Review

While the use of alien insect species for food and feed can help to alleviate protein shortage and provide for a more sustainable feed production, their invasive potential should be considered since invasive alien species represent one of the five main global threats to biodiversity. In the European Union (EU), eight insect species have already been authorized to be used as feed ingredients for aquaculture organisms, pets, poultry, and pigs. These species were selected based on available national risk assessments, as most of them are non-native to Europe. However, it is not clear how these risk assessments truly consider all EU bioregions, given that the information used was mostly biased towards northern European regions. As a large proportion of invasive alien species already present in the EU were introduced unintentionally, it is therefore crucial to understand and manage the potential pathways of such introductions in a more effective way. Here, we provide a critical overview of the potential risks of rearing alien insect species as feed or as pet food (for both livestock and exotic pets) in the EU. The results showed that some of these insect species have an invasive potential, either due to their reproductive capacity in different climates or due to the fact that they have already established populations in areas where they were introduced, with negative effects on local ecosystems or causing economical losses. For this reason, it is recommended that risk assessments should be performed in other EU bioregions as well as monitoring programs to control the spread of insect species with invasive potential. In addition, other available native insect species with potential to be used as feed ingredients should be considered.

Monkeypox: we cannot afford to ignore yet another warning

Abstract An unintended consequence of smallpox eradication and ending the smallpox vaccination campaign has been to render the global human population immunologically naïve to orthopoxvirus infection for the first time in history. This has occurred at a time when the majority of people worldwide live in high population densities in cities and when connectivity across the world has never been higher, both of which facilitate the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. It is not surprising, therefore, that novel zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections have been increasing in recent years, or that an international outbreak of human monkeypox disease has occurred. A One Health approach, including consideration of land-use change and the bushmeat and exotic pet trades, is required to prevent opportunities for the emergence of monkeypox, or diseases cause by other orthopoxviruses, and for a rapid and effective response to any outbreaks in order to limit their spread. One Health Impact Statement The current global outbreak of monkeypox is yet another warning for the adoption of a preventative, One Health, approach to minimise the risk of future emergence of known and unknown zoonotic pathogens. This includes the need to consider the roles, and to mitigate the impacts, of land-use change and the bushmeat and exotic pet trades in order to prevent opportunities for the emergence of monkeypox virus, or other orthopoxviruses, and for a rapid and effective response to any outbreaks in order to limit their spread. As of 9 September 2022, there have been 56,098 confirmed cases of monkeypox in people in 96 countries since an initial case was confirmed in the UK on 7 May (CDC, 2022). However, this does not include infections in Central and West Africa where the infection is endemic and where human cases of the disease have been escalating dramatically in recent years following smallpox eradication ( Tasamba, 2022 ). Monkeypox virus (MPV), the causative agent of monkeypox, is an orthopoxvirus (OPV) closely related to smallpox virus. Following a global vaccination campaign, the World Health Assembly confirmed the eradication of smallpox in 1980, after which vaccination against this disease was ended. During the following 40 years, therefore, and for the first time in history, the global human population has become immunologically naïve to OPVs ( Dye and Kraemer, 2022 ). This has created a gaping ecological niche that is open to exploitation by a new OPV. It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that zoonotic infections with at least two previously unknown OPVs have emerged in recent years: Akhmeta pox and Alaska pox ( Vora et al ., 2015 ; Springer et al ., 2017 ). Monkeypox virus is also a zoonotic OPV and, although recognized for many years as a public health threat in waiting subsequent to the decline of smallpox vaccination ( Heymann et al ., 1998 ), monkeypox has remained a neglected disease ( Di Giulio and Eckburg, 2004 ; Parker et al ., 2007 ), which is only now receiving attention following its spread to high-income countries.