Exotic Pet Trade Research Articles

Frog in the well: A review of the scientific literature for evidence of amphibian sentience

Millions of amphibians are traded annually around the world for the exotic pet industry. Their experience during both trade, and in captivity as pets, leads to numerous animal welfare issues. The poor welfare of many pet amphibians is due in part to poor attitudes and acceptance of amphibian species to suffer. Amphibians, like other vertebrate species, are sentient, which means that their feelings matter. In our study, we have sought to explore the scientific literature over 31 years (1990–2020), to establish what aspects of sentience are accepted and still being explored in amphibians. Our review aimed to; 1) assess the extent to which amphibian sentience features in a portion of the scientific literature, 2) to determine which aspects of sentience have been studied in amphibians, and in which species, and 3) to evaluate what this means in terms of their involvement and treatment in the global exotic pet trade. We used 42 keywords to define sentience and used these to search through four databases (ScienceDirect, BioOne, Ingenta Connect, and MDPI), and one open-access journal (PLOS ONE). We recorded studies that either explored or assumed sentience traits in amphibians. We found that amphibians were assumed to be capable of the following emotions and states; stress, pain, distress, suffering, fear, anxiety, excitement, altruism and arousal. The term ‘emotion’ was explored in amphibians with mixed results. Our results show that amphibians are known to feel and experience a range of sentience characteristics and traits and that these feelings are utilised and accepted in studies using amphibians as research models. There is, however, still much more to learn about amphibian sentience, particularly in regards to positive states and emotions, and this growing understanding could be used to make positive changes for the experiences of amphibians in captivity.

Editorial

From Editor’s Desk… Since May 2022, more than 60,000 cases of MPX have been reported in places where it has never been seen before, like the United States (US) and Europe, among people who have never been to an area where it is common. Monkeypox is mostly reported in Central and West Africa, but cases have been reported in high-income countries due to travel and exotic pet trade. At this time, cases are being reported all over the world. There is a lack of clarity regarding the transmission, risk factors, clinical presentation, and outcomes of the infection.It is considered that the MPXV virus can only transmit when it comes into touch with bodily fluids, droplets from the lungs, or lesions. The MPXV virus can also be passed between people through sexual contact. In order to prevent the virus from spreading further, it is essential to understand how it does so. According to a report published by the CDC, monkeypox could continue to spread indefinitely in the United States at a low level and it is extremely improbable that monkeypox will be eradicated from the United States in the near future. However, there has been an increase in the number of vaccines that are available, and people are becoming more knowledgeable about how to protect themselves against infection. This has led to a slowdown of the outbreak. Dr. Khaid Mohammed Alabdulwahhab Editor in Chief

Endoparasites of pet reptiles and amphibians from exotic pet shows in Texas, United States.

Reptiles and amphibians are becoming increasingly more common in the exotic pet trade and as such veterinary care is also rising. Parasitic infections can pose a serious threat to pet reptiles and amphibians and are a common finding in these exotic pets. The purpose of the present study was to determine the species composition of parasites among reptiles and amphibians entering the pet industry. Excreta were collected from 283 reptiles and amphibians (181 geckos, 23 chameleons, 21 frogs, 16 tortoises, 11 snakes, 1 caiman, and 31 other lizard species), representing 58 different species. Samples were collected from animals being sold at exotic pet shows in Texas, USA, where breeders from throughout the United States gathered to showcase their exotic pets. Excreta samples were tested using double centrifugation flotation with Sheather's sucrose solution. Endoparasites were identified in 51.9% of samples. The most prevalent helminth parasite among reptiles and amphibians were Pharyngodonidae (44.5%) nematodes. Oocysts of coccidians such as Isospora, Eimeria, and Choleoeimeria, and cysts of the ciliate Nyctotherus were also identified. The prevalence rates of endoparasites among animal groups ranged from 0 to 87.5%. The highest prevalence of infection was found in Testudines (87.5%), followed by Chamaeleonidae (87%), other lizards (76.7%), Amphibia (71.4%), Serpentes (63.6%), and then Gekkonidae (55.2%). No endoparasites were detected in the one Crocodylia sampled. Our results show that parasitic infections, many of which can cause clinical disease and mortality, are common in exotic reptiles and amphibians being sold or traded as pets in the United States, underlining the need for veterinary care and routine diagnostic screening for parasitic infections.

Filling the knowledge gap in the reproductive biology of land hermit crabs (Decapoda: Anomura: Coenobitidae): captive breeding to explore incubation times and frequency

Abstract Land hermit crabs are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and play important roles in the coastal-forest ecosystem, such as contributing to seed dispersal and scavenging; however, they face serious threats such as habitat loss and smuggling for the exotic pet trade. Information on their reproductive biology is thus crucial for formulating and promoting conservation policies to their benefit. We conducted captive breeding for over 10 years, compiling records for four of the 10 years, and report the incubation times and frequency and the successful rate of release of larvae during captive breeding of five species of Coenobitidae: Coenobita brevimanusDana, 1852, C. cavipesStimpson, 1858, C. rugosus H. Milne Edwards, 1837, C. perlatus H. Milne Edwards, 1837, and C. purpureusStimpson, 1858. Results indicate that C. cavipes had the longest incubation period of more than 30 days and C. purpureus the shortest, approximately 20 days. Four of the species bred an average of 3.5 times per year, whereas C. cavipes bred once or twice per year. The success rate of larval release for all five species was 60%–70% over four years. Unsuccessful larval release may have been caused by human and environmental interference. Although further research is required because only small samples of each species were studied, the reported data may help to fill gaps in our knowledge on the reproductive biology of land hermit crabs.

Exotic Pet Trade as a Cause of Biological Invasions: The Case of Tree Squirrels of the Genus Callosciurus.

Simple SummaryThe pet industry is a growing global multibillion dollar market. The increase of exotic and non-domesticated animal ownership has led to an increase in the number of non-native pets released that create invasive alien species (IAS) populations in the wild. IAS negatively impact the biodiversity, human health and countries’ economies. We use tree squirrels of the genus Callosciurus as a well-documented case study of pets that become IAS. We review the pathways and range of introduction and the challenge and legal importance of species identification. Next, we document how they negatively affect native plants and animals, their parasitic infections that can threat native wildlife and human health and their impact on human activities and productive systems. We discuss the diverse biological, social, political and economic reasons that make control/eradication of these charismatic species difficult in most countries. However, we also highlight the successful management of the IAS in two countries where the early detection and engagement of stakeholders were key to successful eradication. We conclude that efforts to educate and involve the broader public by actively engaging a diversity of stakeholders are more likely to build a consensus toward IAS management and should be a priority for each country.The trade of non-native pets, especially of non-domesticated and exotic animals, and their subsequent release and establishment of populations is one of the major pathways of introduction for invasive alien reptiles, amphibia, birds and mammals. Here, we use a group of arboreal mammals, tree squirrels of the genus Callosciurus, as a well-documented case study, reviewing the pathways of introduction, the current areas of non-native distribution, the rate of establishment success and the challenge and legal importance of species identification. We further illustrate the importance of early detection and effective monitoring methods and plans. Next, we document how they interfere with native species, their risk of acting as vectors for emerging infectious diseases and their potential role in maintaining parasitic infections that can affect human health. We conclude by reviewing the current management, or the lack of it, and highlight the diverse biological, social, political and economic reasons that make control/eradication of these charismatic species difficult or even impractical in most countries. However, reviewing the only two successful eradications of the IAS, we highlight the need to acknowledge the public opinion and the importance of communication, transparency and the engagement of a diversity of stakeholders to create a consensus about the actions to undertake.

Live reptile smuggling is predicted by trends in the legal exotic pet trade

AbstractLive animal smuggling presents a suite of conservation and biosecurity concerns, including the introduction of invasive species and diseases. Yet, understanding why certain species are smuggled over others, and predicting which species will be smuggled, remains relatively unexplored. Here, we compared the live reptile species illegally smuggled to Australia (75 species) to the legal trade of live reptile species in the United States. Almost all smuggled species were found in the legal US pet market (74 species), and we observed an average time lag of 5.6 years between a species first appearing in the United States and its subsequent detection in Australia. Using a Bayesian regression model, species popularity in the United States, and internationally, were positively associated with smuggling probability to Australia. Our findings give insight to the drivers of illegal wildlife trade and our predictive modelling approach provides a framework for anticipating future trends in wildlife smuggling.

10Animal Studies

Abstract This overview of animal studies scholarship from 2020 covers a diverse range of sites – from escaped primates in IKEA carparks to boar hunting in colonial India – and disciplinary contexts, drawing together research from philosophy, literary theory, the environmental humanities, animal geographies, imperial history, and ecofeminism. What unites these texts is their engagement with one of the most significant themes in animal studies: the politics of anthropocentrism. The first sections of the essay engage with work that has sought to critique anthropocentric logics and practices. Through focusing on research related to the exotic pet trade, avian extinction, and colonial science, I illustrate how anthropocentric hierarchies are being enacted – but also complicated – but particular socio-economic relationships and knowledge-frameworks. In the second sections of the essay, I engage more explicitly with scholarship that has foregrounded the complex relationships between anthropocentrism, colonialism, gendered inequalities, and racialization. Although this research is wide-ranging, what it shares is an insistence on the need to better situate narratives about the intersection of human and animal oppression, in light of the way these relations are shaped by specific national and cultural contexts. The essay culminates by discussing contemporary critiques of animal studies due to the primacy it has given to anthropocentrism over other oppressive social relations, particularly race. At the same time as arguing that the field needs to meaningfully engage with these critiques moving forward, I conclude by suggesting that there is something important about anthropocentrism that means it retains value as a critical concept for animal studies.

Occurrence of Ophionyssus natricis (Acari: Macronyssidae) on the captive corn snake, Pantherophis guttatus, (Squamata: Colubridae) in Turkey

Exotic snakes may harbour numerous parasites and play an important role in the spreading of parasites. Ophionyssus natricis (Gervais) (Acari: Macronyssidae) has been found in natural conditions on a wide variety of snakes in Africa, but this mite has been distributed by exotic pet trade in various parts of the world. In the present study, O. natricis was reported on the captive corn snake, Pantherophis guttatus (L.) (Squamata: Colubridae), in Turkey, for the first time. Male and protonymph stage of O. natricis were also first time reported in Turkey. In addition, some setal variations in the pygidial shield of protonymphs were documented.

Animal-human two-shot images: Their out-of-context interpretation and the implications for zoo and conservation settings.

Images containing both animals and humans (two-shot images) are popular across social media and zoo advertising. However, these images, even when taken in ethical and conservation settings, have the potential for misinterpretation and may inadvertently promote the illegal wildlife trade, exotic pet trade or photo-prop industries. We examined whether zoo visitors' (n = 531) attitudes and stated Willingness to Donate (WTD) altered depending on whether they viewed a two-shot image set in a photo-prop setting (typically associated with negative welfare) or in a zoo or wild setting. All images, including photo-prop, were generally viewed positively regardless of context. Zoo-based images received a greater number of comments relating to concern for the animal's environment or welfare compared to other images, although numbers were still relatively low. This indicates a lack of awareness about the photo-prop industry and misconceptions about modern welfare practices in zoos, thus reflecting a need for improved education in these areas. Two-shot images in zoo settings elicited significantly higher stated WTD than images in wild or photo-prop settings or when an animal was pictured alone. Suggesting zoo-based images may be more effective for conservation campaigns than traditional images of an animal in its environment. Furthermore, images featuring a uniformed keeper plus an animal do not appear to increasing desire for pet ownership, indicating that they can be used in zoo advertising with minimal negative consequences.

A looming exotic reptile pet trade in India: patterns and knowledge gaps

Commercial trade of exotic reptiles through CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in India is relatively recent (<2 decades). Social media platforms and web portals are known to be used for pet trade. Exotic pet trade is not legally regulated within India. Therefore, little is known on the scale at which this trade is carried out in India. We conducted a two-year study between 2018 and 2020 gathering information of exotic reptile pet trade online and summarized CITES documentation of the yearly import export records from 1976 to 2018 by CITES secretariat. This manuscript provides a baseline for the extent of the trade, invasive species and the species traded in mainland India. We found that there is an extensive trade of exotic reptiles in the country, comprising 84 species including the highly venomous species such as Bitis gabonica. According to CITES records of 1976–2018, 98.6% of the reptile imports into India have not been reported to the CITES management authorities in India. We also found some evidence of trade in protected native species through the exotic pet trade network. Furthermore, some highly threatened reptile species including many listed in Appendix I of CITES are traded in India.

Perceptions of animal welfare and exotic pet ownership in China

AbstractChina plays a critical role in global biodiversity conservation, as both a biodiversity hotspot and for its role in international and domestic animal trade. Efforts to promote wildlife conservation have sparked interest in the attitudes held by Chinese citizens towards animals. Using a questionnaire, we sought to investigate the attitudes of 317 Chinese nationals across 22 provincial-level administrative units regarding their uses of animals, their perceived emotional capacities and views on exotic pets. We reduced the variables related to perceived uses of animals via Principal Component Analysis and ran Generalised Linear Models and Structural Equation Modelling to test relationships between questionnaire-derived variables. Perceptions of animals were divided into two Kellert categories — Utilitarian and Humanistic uses — and 97% of participants believed in animals’ capacities to have and express emotions. We found few interactions, with exotic pets, ie playing with or taking photographs, but the acceptability of owning an exotic pet influenced the likelihood of purchasing one. A belief that animals express emotions encouraged people to look for them as pets but thinking that pets make people happy made exotic pet ownership less acceptable. The shift in attitudes to include humanistic perceptions of animals, a belief in animals as emotive beings and understanding of terminology changed from the previous utilitarian views of pre-reform China, suggesting a readiness to embrace further conservation efforts in China. This deeper understanding of Chinese attitudes toward animals and drivers of the exotic pet trade within China may enable conservation efforts to better target future campaigns.

Live wild animal exports to supply the exotic pet trade: A case study from Togo using publicly available social media data

AbstractExotic pet supply is a key, predominantly legal, component of global wildlife trade, but few studies have quantified its diversity or global reach. Here, using information extracted from the public (open) Facebook accounts of two wildlife exporters in Togo, West Africa, we identified at least 200 species, predominantly reptiles, but also mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates, advertised as available for sale and export, between the years 2016 and 2020. Of the animals identified, several hundred, possibly several thousand, individuals were shipped, at least monthly, to North America, Europe, Asia, and elsewhere in Africa, via a number of major airlines. Among the vertebrates observed, approximately one‐third had not yet been evaluated on the IUCN Red list, and three quarters were not CITES‐listed (i.e., their trade was not regulated under this international treaty). The apparent lack of adequate monitoring of population status, disease, biological invasion, and animal welfare risks associated with this trade, as well as neglected taxa (e.g., invertebrates), has potential implications for environmental, public, and animal health. The findings of this case study suggest that a systematic review of social media activity could efficiently reveal significant insights into the otherwise undocumented global supply of exotic pets, directing legislators to aspects and areas where regulation is insufficient, and informing international and national policy change.

Is YouTube promoting the exotic pet trade? Analysis of the global public perception of popular YouTube videos featuring threatened exotic animals.

The exploitation of threatened exotic species via social media challenges efforts to regulate the exotic pet trade and consequently threatens species conservation. To investigate how such content is perceived by the global community, mixed model sentiment analysis techniques were employed to explore variations in attitudes expressed through text and emoji usage in public comments associated with 346 popular YouTube® videos starring exotic wild cats or primates in 'free handling' situations. Negative interactions between wild cats and primates with other species were found to be associated with both text and emoji median sentiment reduction, however were still accompanied by a median emoji sentiment above zero. Additionally, although a negative trend in median text sentiment was observed in 2015 for primates, an otherwise consistent positive median text and emoji sentiment score through time across all IUCN Red List categories was revealed in response to both exotic wild cat and primate videos, further implying the societal normalisation and acceptance of exotic pets. These findings highlight the urgency for effective YouTube® policy changes and content management to promote public education and conservation awareness, whilst extinguishing false legitimisation and demand for the exotic pet trade.

Exotic pet trading and keeping: Proposing a model government consultation and advisory protocol

Exotic pet trading and keeping raises many concerns regarding animal welfare, species conservation, ecological alteration, invasive species, public health and safety, and other issues. Despite these concerns, the UK Government assigns greater consultation importance to exotic pet trading and keeping stakeholders than to parties that seek to remedy relevant problems, or to independent experts. To help ameliorate the current situation, we propose a model government advisory protocol in which consultation weight is assigned first to independent scientific parties; secondly to animal welfare parties; and thirdly to exotic pet trading and keeping parties. Relatedly, we present two case studies as illustrative examples, that: A. examine UK government and other national approaches to stakeholder consultations; and B. compare differences in scale between stakeholders for the exotic pet trade and hobby, animal welfare, and independent expert sectors based on respective numbers of employees, registered supporters, and social media followers. We conclude that current UK and some other protocols are wrongly skewed towards exotic pet trading and keeping practices, and may be causally-related to the long-standing and growing concerns regarding problematic issues, and that relevant animal welfare parties greatly outweigh exotic pet trading and keeping parties, which further suggests that consultation bias towards the exotic pet trading and keeping sector is disproportionate.

On the Record: An Analysis of Exotic Pet Licences in the UK.

Simple SummaryIn the UK, owning wild animals as exotic pets has become a popular habit in recent decades, but information on the scale of the trade and the diversity of animals involved is lacking. We summarised the licensed sale of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals as exotic pets in the UK, identifying geographical hotspots of trader activity, data gaps, and compliance issues related to this trade. We found that the maximum numbers of exotic pets permitted for sale included 54,634 amphibians, 64,810 reptiles, 23,507 birds, and 6479 mammals, and nearly 2000 pet traders located in 283 different local authority areas had permission to sell exotic pets in 2019. Given the scope and scale of the industry at this point in time, our study highlights compliance issues of concern, and draws attention to the lack of detailed information held on UK pet shop licences, all of which have the potential to hinder efforts to safeguard animal welfare.Keeping exotic pets has become a popular habit in the UK in recent decades. Yet, information on the current scale of the trade and the diversity of animals involved is lacking. Here, we review the licensed sale of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals as exotic pets in the UK, identifying current geographical hotspots of trader activity, data gaps, and compliance issues related to this trade. In terms of trade volume, records showed large numbers of individual wild animals, across a wide range of species groups, are being legally sold in the UK. Maximum numbers of exotic pets permitted for sale included 54,634 amphibians, 64,810 reptiles, 23,507 birds, and 6479 mammals. Moreover, nearly 2000 pet traders located in 283 different local authority areas had permission to sell exotic pets. The scope and scale of the trade draws additional attention to the substantial animal welfare challenges associated with it, and our review serves to highlight several shortcomings associated with the licensed exotic pet trade in the UK. Pet shop licences often lacked detailed information about the specific type and number of animals permitted for sale, which raises compliance concerns and hinders efforts to carry out adequate inspection and monitoring. Ninety-five pet traders in England had been given a one star rating, indicating ‘minor failings’ in animal welfare, and some local authorities in England were still operating under the old Pet Animals Act (1951). We recommend that resources should be prioritised and focused towards local authorities in England that are not operating under the new Animal Welfare (Licensing of Activities Involving Animals) (England) Regulations (2018), and that local authorities should improve data reporting on all licenses issued to aid inspection and monitoring.

Exotic animal cafes are increasingly home to threatened biodiversity

AbstractExploitation of species for wildlife trade, including the demand for exotic pets (likely sourced from the wild or recent generations of captivity) is a major threat to biodiversity. Although not traditionally considered “pet keeping” countries, pet ownership is growing in Asia. Exotic animals are also appearing in cafes, which are growing in popularity and have the potential to impact wild populations by stimulating exotic pet trade. We identified 406 animal cafes across Asia, of which 27% housed exotic species, including mammals (e.g., otter, slow loris, meerkat), birds (e.g., owls, hawks, parrots), and reptiles (e.g., geckos, pythons, turtles). Of the 252 exotic species recorded, 46% were threatened either as classified by the IUCN Red List, having a decreasing population trend, and/or threatened by the pet trade. These results, alongside the alignment of cafe traits with recognized factors influencing exotic pet trade, demonstrate as yet unclear (but potentially dramatic) implications for conservation.

From tigers to axolotls: Why people keep exotic pets in Russia

Abstract The exotic pet trade, both legal and illegal, ‬plays a crucial role in wildlife overharvesting and biodiversity loss world‐wide, but drivers of demand for exotic pets are still poorly understood and under‐studied. Some geographical areas, including the post‐Soviet states, have little or no relevant research. We conducted open‐ended in‐depth interviews with 27 exotic pet owners in Russia. The research involved participants who collectively owned over 90 pet animals, including endangered and critically endangered species. The interviewees were classified into four main categories according to their motivations and reasons for keeping exotic pets. ‘Life‐Savers’ were motivated by pity; ‘Accidental Owners’ acquired animals by chance; ‘New Experience Seekers’ were looking for something different and unusual; and ‘Collectors’ acquired animals based on their specific characteristics. Species and provenance preferences, level of husbandry knowledge, understanding of the legislation and rights varied among exotic pet owners often reflecting their different motivations. Despite their differences, together they formed a distinctive sub‐community of pet owners. Our findings provide essential information for various stakeholders, including policymakers and law enforcement agencies, aiming to address exotic pet trade in Russia and its negative impact on biodiversity both in Russia and overseas. Understanding the motivations for exotic pet ownership will facilitate a more evidence‐based policy to emerge to regulate pet ownership. This paper can also serve as a basis for further investigation into the exotic pet trade of Russia and our typology of motivations could be a basis for future studies in other geographical areas. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Ancient DNA of Guinea Pigs (Cavia spp.) Indicates a Probable New Center of Domestication and Pathways of Global Distribution

Guinea pigs (Cavia spp.) have a long association with humans. From as early as 10,000 years ago they were a wild food source. Later, domesticated Cavia porcellus were dispersed well beyond their native range through pre-Columbian exchange networks and, more recently, widely across the globe. Here we present 46 complete mitogenomes of archaeological guinea pigs from sites in Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, the Caribbean, Belgium and the United States to elucidate their evolutionary history, origins and paths of dispersal. Our results indicate an independent centre of domestication of Cavia in the eastern Colombian Highlands. We identify a Peruvian origin for the initial introduction of domesticated guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) beyond South America into the Caribbean. We also demonstrate that Peru was the probable source of the earliest known guinea pigs transported, as part of the exotic pet trade, to both Europe and the southeastern United States. Finally, we identify a modern reintroduction of guinea pigs to Puerto Rico, where local inhabitants use them for food. This research demonstrates that the natural and cultural history of guinea pigs is more complex than previously known and has implications for other studies regarding regional to global-scale studies of mammal domestication, translocation, and distribution.

Searching for snakes: ball python hunting in southern Togo, West Africa

The ball python (Python regius) is the single most exported live CITES-listed species from Africa, with a large proportion of snakes being sourced from Togo, West Africa, officially via a system reported nationally as “ranching”. This study represents the first in-depth review of ball python hunting being carried out by rural communities in Togo for nearly 15 years. Our approach, focused at the bottom of the trade chain, permitted extensive detailed data to be collected from hunters, and provides a unique insight into the practices, drivers and impacts associated with this type of large-scale commercial wildlife trade activity. We show that ball python hunting remains an economically valuable endeavour for these rural hunters. However, it also highlights a number of potential legal, conservation and animal welfare issues associated with the current hunting practices being carried out in Togo (and neighbouring range States) to supply the snake farms and ultimately the international exotic pet trade. Our findings suggest that the methods applied on the ground do not accurately reflect those being reported to national authorities and international regulatory mechanisms such as CITES. This irregular, if not illegal, trade may also be unsustainable, as suggested by hunters reporting that there are fewer ball pythons in the wild than there were five years previously. We recommend that additional scientific investigation (focusing on the size and status of the wild population), better management, and enforcement of regulations, are required to ensure that ball python populations are managed in a sustainable, legal and traceable way.

Blind Trading: A Literature Review of Research Addressing the Welfare of Ball Pythons in the Exotic Pet Trade.

Simple SummaryThe Ball python is a small species that is commonly kept as an exotic pet across the world. Despite huge numbers of these snakes being kept and traded in the pet industry, there is very little information available about how catching, breeding, transporting and housing them in captivity could impact their welfare. Our study reviewed the published literature for this species and found 88 relevant peer-reviewed scientific papers. Physical health was the predominant focus of research, with numerous studies reporting on disease, injury or clinical treatments. Far fewer papers focused on other aspects of Ball python wellbeing, including behaviour, nutrition, environment or mental condition. We also found that very few studies focused on wellbeing prior to pet ownership, i.e., during the early stages of the trade chain when they are caught from the wild, transported, or bred in captivity. We recommend that more research is needed to assess the impact of the exotic pet trade on this species’ welfare. In particular, research on welfare conditions during capture and transportation of wild Ball pythons, and the potential effects of captive breeding, could help reduce suffering throughout the trade.Extensive numbers of Ball pythons are caught, bred, traded and subsequently kept in captivity across the world as part of the exotic pet industry. Despite their widespread availability as pets, relatively little is known about the potential welfare challenges affecting them. We reviewed the literature for research focused on the health and welfare of Ball pythons in the international pet trade. From a total of 88 articles returned from the search criteria, our analysis showed that very few actually focused on trade (10%) or animal welfare (17%). Instead, the majority (64%) of articles focused on veterinary science. There was a considerable bias towards physical health, with most studies neglecting the four other domains of animal welfare (behaviour, nutrition, environment and mental health). Furthermore, very few studies considered Ball pythons prior to resulting pet ownership, during wild capture and transportation or captive breeding operations. Our review demonstrates that our current understanding of welfare for Ball pythons traded as exotic pets is limited. We recommend that future research should focus on aspects of the industry that are currently overlooked, including the potential consequences of genetic selection during captive-breeding and the conditions provided for snakes prior to and during international transportation.