Exocentric Compounds Research Articles

Exocentric Compounds in English and Punjabi: A Morpho-Semantic Analysis of NN Formations

The paper provides new insight into the analysis of exocentric compounds in English and Punjabi by introducing a new step-by-step mechanism devised with the help of cognitive and cultural linguistics. The main purpose of the study is to show that exocentric compounds are very productive in the Indo -European languages. The current study claims that every exocentric compound is metaphoric in nature. Every constituent in an exocentric compound carries several interpretations based on specific metonymic relations and cultural knowledge. The meaning of one constituent aids and activates the interpretation of another constituent. In this paper*, only four examples of NN compounds are discussed in detail. Although the study is not a comparative analysis in actual sense, however, the formations of such compounds in English are also analyzed to show the applicability of the mechanism in other languages as well. The results revealed that the above mechanism is equally applicable in both the languages and supports the metaphoric interpretation in exocentric compounds. The study also nullifies the claims about the non-productivity and unpredictability of the exocentric compounds. 

Compound words on the Jakarta post newspaper and Việtnam news newspaper

A newspaper has become the major news source around the world, either the printed or online newspaper. A newspaper provides many kinds of news and from different perspectives. Words in the newspaper play a significant role to deliver the information to the readers. The morpho-semantic study is needed to find out the uncommon words and their meaning in the newspaper. News in The Jakarta Post newspaper and Việt Nam News newspaper were analyzed, applying Hamawand’s (2001) compound categorization. Endocentric compound and exocentric compound by O’Grady et al (2016) are also being used in this study. The data were taken in a purposive sampling technique by observing eight news in the business column by The Jakarta Post and nine news in the economy column by Việt Nam News, taken from August 28, 2020, until September 4, 2020. Both newspapers contain distinctive compound words related to the economy that is still rarely known by people. From the total seventeen news, only a noun compound and adjective compound are found in the news, while the verb compound does not appear at all. The total of compound words found in the news is 25; there are 18 noun compounds and 7 adjective compounds found in the news. There are 16 endocentric compounds and 9 exocentric compounds found. The result shows that noun compounds and endocentric compounds appear more often than adjective compounds and exocentric compounds.

Compound Words Found in Seventy-Seven Thousand Service-Trees (Sri Chinmoy)

This research deals with compound words used in Seventy-Seven Thousand Service-Trees by Sri Chinmoy. The case is many people did not recognize and aware of using it. This research is trying to describe the types and the structure of compound words and supported by two theories, those are Booij (2007) and McCarthy (2002). In achieving the objectives, the researcher uses descriptive qualitative as the type of the research. The data are in the form of compound words. In collecting the data the writer applies documentation technique and the steps are reading attentively, selecting, collecting, and classifying the data systematically by following the types and the structure of compound words. The results of this research show that there are three kinds of compound words. From 390 the data of compound words, there are 348 data are classified as a compound noun, 20 data are classified as a compound adjective, and 22 data are classified as a compound verb. In this research, it is found that only two ways in the spelling of compound words are solid and hyphenated. There are three sub-classes of compound words found in this study those are endocentric compound, exocentric compound, and copulative compound.

Headedness and exocentric compounding

Semantic headedness typically serves as the primary criterion for compound endocentricity, i.e. whether a compound has a head. The semantic head is often defined as the hyperonym from which the denotation of the compound is derived, with exocentric compounds being those whose denotation is not a subclass of that of their head element. Headedness, so defined, leads us to analyze every non-compositional compound as exocentric. We explore the boundaries between semantic exocentricity and non-compositionality using established diagnostics in order to decide whether a semantic characterization of headedness is valid, and to determine whether exocentricity and non-compositionality coincide. Assuming a syntactic model of morphological combinatorics we show that exocentricity must be defined configurationally, occurring when the structure of a compound modifies an external entity, frequently instantiated by an empty noun. Hence exocentricity is not the absence of a head, but the realization of the compound's head outside its internal structure. Non-compositionality, in turn, derives from how the root of each constituent member of a compound is compositionally or idiosyncratically interpreted. Finally, we put forth a new typological distribution of exocentric compounds, discriminating real exocentric compounds (bahuvrihi and dvandva) from compounds that are commonly, but wrongly, defined as exocentric (e.g. deverbal and de-prepositional compounds).

KATA MAJEMUK DALAM TEKS BERITA DARING CNN INTERNARTIONAL EDISI SEPTEMBER 2019: KAJIAN MORFOLOGI

The title of this research is “Compounding in CNN International Online Newspaper September, 2019: Morphological Studies”. this research aims to describe the compounding form and compounding category in CNN Internatinal online newspaper, September 2019. The method in this research is used qualitative descriptive research method. The data in this research were obtined by reading the CNN Internatinal online newspaper, September 2019. The result of this research shows that the compounding process in CNN Internatinal online newspaper, September 2019 can be classified into two forms they are writing forms and compounding forms. In writing forms they are open form and close form and the form of compounding they are endocentric compound (which has a head of compound words) and exocentric compound (which has no a head of a compound word). The category of the data they are compound noun (noun+noun/verb+noun) and compound verb (noun+verb).

Morphological Process of Compound Words on Food and Beverage Names in J.CO Donuts & Coffee

Abstract Opting for food and beverage names on the menu list becomes a significant part of the marketing strategy. The only aim is to attract more consumers. Therefore, several culinary businesses such as restaurants, cafes, or food stall provide menu lists written in English and in a unique way either by combining words or forming a new word. In this case, morphological process plays a significant role in forming compound words. The purpose of the study is to describe the process of forming the compound words as well as classify the semantic types and meanings on food and beverage names in J.CO Donuts & Coffee. This study applies a descriptive qualitative method and theories from Delahunty and Garvey (2010) and Lieber (2009) in analyzing the data. In gaining the data analysis, several processes of analysis are done, they are (1) describing the formation of each name, (2) classifying the names based on its classes in compound category, (3) finding the meaning of each name then categorize it according to the semantic types and meaning. The result shows that food and beverage are formed from compound nouns, compound adjectives, and neo-classical compounds with three classifications namely double morpheme, double compound words, and without double morpheme and double compound. In semantic types and meanings, there are found endocentric compound with transparent meaning and exocentric compound with opaque meaning. Keywords: morphological process, compound words, endocentric and exocentric compound, transparent and opaque meaning, food and beverage names

A Survey of Exocentric Compounds in Three Kwa Languages: Akan, Ewe and Ga

Whereas the existence of exocentric compounds is taken for granted in the literature on compounding, there are just a few studies devoted to the nature and types of exocentric compounds cross-linguistically and in African languages in particular, leaving exocentricity in African languages severely under-researched. This paper seeks to contribute to knowledge on exocentricity by exploring the range of exocentric compounds in three Kwa languages – Akan, Ewe and Ga – in the context of the typology of exocentric compounds proposed by Bauer (2008a, 2010) who posited five types – bahuvrihi, exocentric synthetic, exocentric co-compounds, transpositional exocentric and metaphorical compounds. Appah (2016b, 2017b) argued that three of the five types (bahuvrihi, exocentric synthetic and transpositional exocentric compounds) with various subtypes occur in Akan. The equivalent of Bauer’s metaphorical compounds was subsumed under bahuvrihi compounds, while the absence of exocentric co-compounds was argued to be an areal feature, given the observation that co-compounds are rare in Africa (Walchli 2005). This paper shows that apart from exocentric co-compounds, the rest are found in the languages under discussion to varying extents. All three languages have metaphorical and location bahuvrihi compounds, but the status of the possessor bahuvrihi type is not certain, except in Akan. Ewe has agentive exocentric synthetic compounds, but not the action and patient types, whilst Ga has none. Again, only Ga does not have transpositional exocentric compounds. Finally, it is observed that all the compounds are nouns, notwithstanding the syntactic category of the constituents. This is another potential areal feature.A Survey of Exocentric Compounds in Three Kwa Languages: 1Akan, Ewe and Ga

Lexical Morphology of Lala: A Morphophonological and Morphosyntactic Analysis

The study analysed lexical morphology of Lala. This was done by analysing the morphophonological and morphosyntactic processes involved in word formation. Lala speaking people are found in central province of Zambia in Serenje, Mkushi, Luano and Kapiri Mposhi districts. It is also spoken in some parts across the boarders in Democratic Republic of Congo. Lala is classified as M52 in Guthrie’s classification of Bantu languages. Data were collected using qualitative research design. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on thirty participants for primary data. Stories were also used to collect primary data. Secondary data were collected from a few known books in Lala such as Lala Bible, hymn book, Lala Lamba Wisa English Dictionary and Lala-Lamba Handbook. Data were organised according to specific parts of speech and analysed using two theories namely; Lexical Morphology Theory for morphophonological process involved in word formation, and X-Bar theory of the Government and Binding Theory, for analysing the syntax of compound nouns. The findings were that derivation as word formation process in Lala involves the following: a). verbal derivation; this process involves affixation of verbal extension to bases, thereby forming new radicals and formation of verbs from onomatopoeias. b). adjectival derivation; some adjectives are derived from verbs by affixing applicative extension to a verbal root. c). Nominal derivation; this process is used to form deverbatives, de-adjectivals, de-onomatopoeias, de-nominals, abstract nouns and some names of colours. d). Locativization; this word formation process involves affixation of locatives to demonstratives pronoun to form a locative demonstrative. e). Reduplication; this word formation process involves repeating nouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals and idiophones to form a new lexeme. Compounding is also used as a word formation process in Lala. Compound nouns in Lala are classified under semantic and syntactic categories based on their composition. Lala compound nouns are generally left headed. Under semantic classification, there are nouns in Lala which have semantic heads and others do not have. Endocentric compounds have heads. The head indicates the sub-grouping within the class of entities that it denotes. In the compound noun amatembo ngombe ‘big wasp’, the left word gives the semantic category of the compound. On the other hand, exocentric compounds do not contain semantic heads. The meaning of the compound is not easily predicted from any of the constituents of the compound noun. For example, in muntu ngulya ‘evening time before dusk’, the meaning is opaque. In copulative compounds, the two words involved in a compound noun contribute to the meaning of a compound noun. For example in amapandwa nshila ‘junction’, the two words amapandwa ‘splinted parts’ and i nshila ‘way’ contribute to the meaning of the compound on equal status. Syntactically, all compound nouns in Lala have heads. The head of a compound noun percolates its syntactic features to the rest of the constituents. In most cases, the other constituent acts as a modifier of the head word. Compounding in Lala involves the phonological process of vowel deletion as shown in examples above. The conclusion is that word formation in Lala is a lexical property. There are phonological processes at each stage in word formation in the lexicon. Some aspects of syntax are also involved in compounding.

COMPOUNDING WORDS ; WORDS FORMATION IN REPUBLIKA NEWSPAPERS

This study investigated words formation that found in the republika newspaper. The research was a descriptive qualitative research design . The object of this research was headline of Republika Newspaper. The instrumentation of the reserach was documentation. The data were consisted of 96 data The data were analyzed by using the theory of word formation (O’ Grady, 1996) The results of this research shown that 70 datawere classified as endocentric compound and transparent meaning and 26 data were categorized in exocentric compound and opaque meaning. Transparent meant that the meanings of the words could be predicted from the each of the word. Opaque meant that the meaning of words could not predicted from the each of word.

An “Unexocentric” Synthetic Account of cut-throat and chimney sweep: Evidence from Polish

In English, exocentric compounds, such as chimney sweep and cut-throat do not possess an overtly expressed suffix. Instead, they seem to be composed of a verb and an argument of that verb, e.g. dareVdevilN, shoeNblackV. Naturally, such an interpretation would immediately position the quoted examples among the representatives of root compounding.

Native compounds in TİD: A classification based on headedness

This paper investigates the position of the structural head and its connection to the semantic head in 127 compounds in Turkish Sign Language (TİD). To eliminate language contact effects, we selected compounds that have monomorphemic counterparts in Turkish. The findings are: (i) Endocentric compounds tend to be head-final, (ii) Exocentric compounds tend to be head-initial, (iii) compound internal order, in some well-defined cases, is affected by the lexical semantics of one of the components. In addition, we identify two classes of compounds, cranberry compounds and descriptive compounds, and finally, point to the similarities between compound and phrase structure with respect to the head parameter.

Compound Word Formation in “The Old Man and The Sea”

This study is entitled Compound Word Formation in “The Old Man and The Sea”. This study focuses on two problems; types of compound words found in the novel and the semantic transparency theypossess. The aims of this study are to find out the types of compound words and also to find and describe the semantic transparency of the compound words found in the novel.The data source used in this study is a novel written by Ernest Hemmingway entitled The Old Man and The Sea. The data which were compound words were collected by using documentation method whereas to analyze the data by using descriptive qualitative method. There were three theories used in this study. The main theories are proposed by O’Grady (1996) about the types of the compound and by Katamba (1993) about classifying the data. The theory proposed by Libben (1998) was used to describe the semantic transparency of the compound words. The results show that the types of compound words found in the novel are endocentric compound and exocentric compounds. However, the endocentric compound was more frequent than the exocentric compound. Based on the second problem, there are four types of semantic transparency ;they are (1) transparency of both members of the compound, (2) transparency of the head member – opacity of the non-head member, (3) transparency of the non-head member – opacity of the head member, (4) opacity of both members of the compound.

The Semantic Comprehension of Persian Endocentric and Exocentric Compounds in non-Persian Speakers

Semantic comprehension of Persian compound nouns in non-Persian speakers of TPSL department was investigated using a cognitive-semantics approach. Regarding the semantic relationships between the bases of compound nouns, two were selected based on presence or lack of semantic head. Then, sufficient data were collected from different texts through a desk research method to make a frequency dictionary of endocentric and exocentric compound nouns based on the knowledge level of students. A definition-word pairing test was then selected and most frequent compound nouns (24 compound nouns) were identified and used for the test, developed and run in the form of an application for smart phones by an application developer and participants were provided with it. Overall, 888 data were collected from the test results and analyzed using standard statistical tests suggesting that due to presence of semantic head in endocentric compounds, speed and level of comprehending them was higher than exocentric compounds; moreover, a correlational relationship between comprehension of these compounds was identified. Therefore, the relationship between components of endocentric compounds was understood faster than exocentric compounds. Thus, applicability of CARIN theory was verified.

The Semantic Comprehension of Persian Endocentric and Exocentric Compounds in non-Persian Speakers

Semantic comprehension of Persian compound nouns in non-Persian speakers of TPSL department was investigated using a cognitive-semantics approach. Regarding the semantic relationships between the bases of compound nouns, two were selected based on presence or lack of semantic head. Then, sufficient data were collected from different texts through a desk research method to make a frequency dictionary of endocentric and exocentric compound nouns based on the knowledge level of students. A definition-word pairing test was then selected and most frequent compound nouns (24 compound nouns) were identified and used for the test, developed and run in the form of an application for smart phones by an application developer and participants were provided with it. Overall, 888 data were collected from the test results and analyzed using standard statistical tests suggesting that due to presence of semantic head in endocentric compounds, speed and level of comprehending them was higher than exocentric compounds; moreover, a correlational relationship between comprehension of these compounds was identified. Therefore, the relationship between components of endocentric compounds was understood faster than exocentric compounds. Thus, applicability of CARIN theory was verified.

Exocentric compounds in Akan

The purpose of this paper is to investigate exocentric compounds in Akan and to present a Construction Morphology account of their properties. I show that the complex issue of exocentricity is better accounted for if we distinguish between formal and semantic exocentricity. I present Bauer's (2008, 2010) typology of exocentric compounds (bahuvrihi, exocentric synthetic, transpositional exocentric, exocentric co-compounds and metaphorical exocentric compounds) and test the Akan data against them, showing that all Akan compound types (N-A, N-N, N-V, V-N, and V-V) are either exocentric or have exocentric subtypes which fall into three of the five types identified by Bauer. They are bahuvrihi compounds and exocentric synthetic compounds (of which I identify two subtypes each) and transpositional exocentric compounds. I present the properties of each identified type of Akan exocentric compound using formalisms from Construction Morphology ( Booij 2010b ) in which compounds are word-level constructions capable of having holistic properties. The unexpressed features of the exocentric compounds are regarded as holistic constructional properties that do not emanate from the constituents per se.

Exocentric compounds in Akan

Exocentric compounds in Akan

Comparative Study on the Structures of Chinese and Korean Compound Words

The goal of the research was to compare the compound words in Chinese, an isolated language, and Korean, an agglutinative language. This research used library research. The researchers found that the main characteristics of the formation of Korean compound words were that the latter element was the central word. The method of word formation decided its lexical category. Moreover, most of the internal relationships of the compound words were connection and modification. While in Chinese, the endocentric compound noun decided the part of speech of the compound word, and could be the proceeding element or the latter element. Furthermore, Chinese contained no complicated morphological changes. It is concluded that Korean is a Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) language, where verb elements demonstrate a central feature of the compound verb are always a trailing part. Thus, there is no exocentric compound verb in Korean. By contrast, Chinese is a typical SVO language. When constituting the compound verbs, nouns or adjectives can function as the structural elements. Therefore, there is no permanent position for head words.

Peeling away the layers of the onion: on layers, inflection and domains in Icelandic compounds

In Icelandic there are two different types of modifiers within compounds, inflected and uninflected, and the inflected modifiers appear to be peripheral to the uninflected ones. In this article, it is proposed that this is an effect of compounding being required to combine elements of the same type or size. The inflected modifiers, containing more structure than the uninflected ones, cannot be merged at the same level as uninflected modifiers. This article also explores two other issues of domainhood within the compound. One being the establishment of domains for morphophonological processes, where it is proposed that the boundaries of morphophonological domains are determined by the edge of the extended projection of the root. The second one being that of special meaning, where it is shown that exocentric compounds with inflected modifiers have exclusively non-compositional meaning, whereas exocentric compounds with uninflected modifiers could have either compositional or non-compositional meaning.

Compound words used in Stephenie Meyer’s Twilight

<p>This study was aimed at describing the types, the function, and the meaning of the compound words used in Stephenie Meyer’s <em>Twilight</em>. A qualitative method with the content analysis was applied in this study. The object of this study was compound words. For the data collection, it was used the techniques such as data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. This study was validated by using triangulation. The findings showed that there are 253 compound words. Based on the type of compound words, there are 5 compound words categorized as open form, 65 compound words categorized as hyphenated form, and 183 compound words categorized as closed form. Based on the function of compound words, there are 173 compound nouns, 13 compound verbs, and 67 compound adjectives. Referring to the meaning of compound words found from the contextual meaning, there are 140 words of the exocentric compound and 113 words of the endocentric compound.</p>

Vedic asū́rta-, sū́rta-, asūryá-, asūrá-

In this paper I try to show that Vedic asūrta- is an extended exocentric compound based on svar/sūr 'sun', that it is not a negative formation with the possessive suffix -ta , and that sūrta- is a decompositional formation. I propose that Ved. asūrya-, too , is an exocentric compound. Further, I propose that Ved. asūre is an absence formation of the type arajjau 'without rope' .