Existing Water Supply Research Articles

ANALYSIS OF INFILTRATION WATER INTAKES PRODUCTIVITY

Purpose. Construction of new and reconstruction of existing water supply systems, in order to increase water consumption, provides for the search and analysis of water supply new sources and water intake facilities. This issue acquires particular importance when looking for additional power sources for water supply systems with relatively low water consumption. To reduce the load on wastewater treatment plants that process water from open sources, infiltration intakes are used, which take water from underground aquifers. Infiltration water intakes can be vertical and consist of wells united by prefabricated pipelines or horizontal and have an underground horizontal water intake part − a drainage pipe. Therefore, the problem arises of determining the water intake that has the highest productivity under the same local conditions. Methodology. The productivity of water intakes is characterized by the influence of determining factors on the flow rate of water intakes with one-way feeding in a free-flow aquifer. The conditions of the location of the intake parts of the intakes in the aquifer and their sizes were considered as factors of influence. Results. The analysis of the existing methods for determining the productivity of underground infiltration water intake structures, depending on their location, the influence of water supply sources and design features. It has been determined that the greatest impact on the productivity of water intakes is the amount of water level decrease in the aquifer during water withdrawal, that is, the position of the dynamic water level relative to the static one. Also, the distance from the intake structure to the water's edge has a significant impact. Reducing the distance between the wells and the length of the drainage pipe, within the limits of the study conditions, has no effect on the results. As a result of the research, it has been established that, under the adopted hydrogeological and technical conditions, horizontal underground water intakes are distinguished by a large flow rate. Scientific novelty. The analysis of factors influencing the choice of infiltration water intake structures is carried out. The results of determining the productivity of structures under the same initial conditions are shown. Practical value. Using the results of the analysis allows you to most quickly and effectively solve the issues of choosing the option for powering water supply systems. The analysis has identified the most significant factors influencing the productivity of water intakes and makes it possible to vary them to achieve a result.

Experiences, Challenges, and Initiatives on Water Resource Management of a Small Island Community: The Case of Basco, Batanes, Philippines

With the increasing water demand across different sectors: residential, commercial, agriculture, tourism, and energy, management of this finite resource is a major challenge in harnessing and sustaining its availability. The increasing demand for water from various stakeholders of Basco, Batanes puts pressure on the availability of water. These supply constraints are rooted in the current management setup aside from its biophysical characteristics. The main objective of the study is to better understand the water-related issues and concerns and the operation and implementation of water resource strategies and programs in the case of the small island community in Basco, Batanes. Specifically, it aims to i) characterize the existing water supply systems in a small island community; and ii) assess the challenges, experiences, and efforts in water resources management. Guided with the Integrated Water Resource Management principles (IWRM), the experiences, issues, challenges, and opportunities in water resources management in the small island community were assessed. The available water sources and existing water systems were characterized, and challenges and initiatives toward effective resource management were also evaluated. The methods employed were secondary data collection; detailed household, commercial, and institutional sectors surveys; Focus Group Discussions (FGD) using Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) matrix; Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with key officials in the Local Government Unit (LGU) to capture data on the current operation and implementation of water-related programs. Results showed that Basco, the capital of Batanes, only has two major sources of water: Racuaranum (upstream) and Miaga (downstream) springs. It has no perennial or ephemeral streams. The intermittent streams only flow for a few minutes during heavy rainfall events. Their other sources of water are deep wells and rainwater for everyday use. With the limited budget and human resources of the small island community, localized integrated water resource management highlights the importance of institutional aspects towards its success. A framework on effective resource management emphasized the importance of institutional synergies in small island community setups, such as: joint implementation of watershed management plans, enhancement of technical and financial capabilities given a limited budget and human resources, improvement, and maintenance of water facilities, etc. The complexities of the issues surrounding water resources management could be best addressed by the consolidated efforts of government institutions, the private sector, and the local community within the small island, prioritizing environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity.

Integration of Managed Aquifer Recharge into the Water Supply System in the Algarve Region, Portugal

The Algarve region of Portugal is experiencing severe water scarcity with existing water supplies insufficient to meet demand, with limited resilience to drought. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) can provide intermediate storage and bridge the gap between water availability and demand, with success depending on the water available and the aquifer capacity to accept and store the water. We present the results of a regional study quantifying both these aspects to estimate the regional potential for MAR. Our results demonstrate that MAR can comprise 10% of the total water demand of the region (24 Mm3/yr) using water that is not otherwise captured, with quality that meets the requirements of the Groundwater Directive. MAR can replace 15 Mm3/yr of surface water used in the public irrigation perimeters and 9 Mm3/yr can be used to develop and maintain a strategic groundwater resource in the aquifers of the Central Algarve. Although climate change is predicted to result in an 8–13% decrease in MAR recharge, this can be addressed by incrementally increasing MAR design capacity. MAR has similar water resource benefits to the planned major infrastructure projects (desalination and River Guadiana abstraction), with reduced environmental impacts and lower costs than almost all feasible alternatives. We conclude that MAR is an important measure to increase water supply security and drought resilience in the Algarve region.

Water challenges of Dire Dawa city of Ethiopia: An assessment of urban growth and groundwater supply

Urbanization in Ethiopia is increasing rapidly, leading to environmental changes and necessitating improved urban infrastructure. Dire Dawa, the second most populous city in Ethiopia, has a high rate of urban growth. This study focuses on three main areas: remote sensing analysis of urban growth, urban water supply and water distribution system, and groundwater resources management. Land use and land cover (LULC) analysis over four different time periods showed significant and rapid expansion of the city. The current and future water demand and supply analysis found that the water supply is three times less than the water demand, indicating that existing water sources are not adequate for the future expansion of the city. Moreover, the hydraulic performance of the existing distribution system as analyzed by WaterGems software found that pressure at 22.41% of nodes and velocities at 29.83% of pipes are sufficient to provide water for the study area. Finally, the study investigated the discharge and water level and water quality of each borehole in Dire Dawa City. Overall, this study showed that high urbanization rate together with the population growth has put pressure on the existing water supply source and existing water distribution system calling for feasible water management strategy for the city.

Optimal Pollution Control and Pump-and-Fertilize Strategies in a Nitro-Polluted Aquifer, Using Genetic Algorithms and Modflow

Nitro-pollution in a confined aquifer may originate from its recharge area, e.g., agricultural sites, animal feedlots, septic tanks, and other waste disposal sites or from treated wastewater recharge wells. The latter case is studied. Existing water supply pumping wells should be protected for a given period. Instead of typically investigating optimal pump-and-treat or hydrodynamic pollution control management/remediation strategies, a novel combined pollution control and pump-and-fertilize (PAF) approach is proposed: protect existing wells with additional wells, considering pumped nitro-polluted groundwater as profitable reusable fertilizer rather than a pollutant to be remediated; convey pumped polluted water to an irrigation reservoir, considering nitrogen (N) uptake by irrigated crops in nearby farmlands and proportional decrease in fertilizer application, meaning profit. Optimization entails the operation of optimally located additional pumping wells with optimal flow rates, minimizing the sum of (i) annual pumping cost, (ii) pipe network (connecting additional wells and reservoir) amortization cost, and (iii) profit from retrieved N reuse. Modflow simulates a 3D flow field and advection-dispersion mass transport, while Genetic Algorithms (GAs) handle optimization. Various scenarios are simulated concerning crops’ retrieved N root uptake percentage, fertilizer, and energy market prices. The paper provides a data-ready optimization/decision support tool that creates a pool of alternative (sub)optimal management solutions/strategies.

Carbon sequestration and water management in Texas—One size does not fit all

AbstractClimate‐smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to sustainably meeting food, fiber, and feed production needs. The technical and socioeconomic feasibility of different CSA strategies depends on local conditions, and there is no one‐size‐fits‐all approach. Here, we review two key aspects of CSA with a focus on Texas: soil C sequestration and water management. Carbon sequestration potential is highly variable across Texas as it depends on local biophysical conditions and soil management practices in place, for example, tillage and cover crops. Grasslands also have an important role to play in C sequestration. Important co‐benefits of effective soil management for C sequestration, such as reduced CO2 emissions, enhanced soil structure, and increased microbial activity, can positively impact soil fertility and productivity. The economic and political realities of C sequestration will have a strong influence on the implementation of technically feasible strategies. The major challenge for water management is the sustainable allocation of increasingly scarce resources. Expanded irrigation is a short‐term solution, but in many cases, the existing water supply is insufficient to meet future demand. A drying Texas, and aquifer depletion, portends lower future supplies. The Panhandle, Llano Estacado, and Rio Grande regions have the greatest projected gaps between future supply and demand. Increasing water‐use efficiency and using drought‐tolerant crops are important management goals and precision agriculture with site‐specific management measures could help improve drought resiliency. Texas’ geographic diversity is reflected in the variety of agricultural commodities produced by the state, and CSA activities are likely to be equally diverse.

Economics of household preferences for water-saving technologies in urban South Africa

Drought severity is expected to increase in South Africa in the coming years, given the deteriorating effects of climate change on rainfall patterns, global temperature, and evaporation. A common mitigation strategy adopted by households is to promote water demand management initiatives to reduce water consumption volume and complement existing water supply management approaches implemented by suppliers. This study contributes to the discussion on adaptation strategies by investigating household preference heterogeneity for water-saving technologies through empirical evidence from urban Cape Town, South Africa. Using a choice modelling framework, we collected primary survey data from 512 urban households in five of the city's major suburbs and investigated heterogeneity among the households based on their preferences for characteristics embedded in four water-saving technologies. Four preference classes were identified by accounting for taste heterogeneity. Overall, respondents had the highest marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for the greywater technology alternative at 17,025 ZAR (US$ 1142) while rainwater technology has the least willingness to pay value at 5206 ZAR (US$ 349). In addition, the results show that respondents in classes 1 and 2 have a high interest in technologies that save a large quantity of water, whereas members of classes 3 and 4 rely on inexpensive conservation and behavioral habits as climate adaptation measures. This study has important policy implications for many water-stressed and arid cities within and outside South Africa since like Cape Town, many large cities require long-lasting measures that help reduce the pressure on their strained water systems.

ENERGY SAVING THROUGH IMPROVED TOPOLOGY OF THE CITY WATER NETWORK

This article compares the operation of the existing water supply system in the city Kremenchuk, Poltava region, namely the giving-distributive complex (GDC), which includes the main water network and the pumping station of the 2-nd lift, with the GDC, in which the topological structure has been improved by introducing a new section of the network. During the operation of the GDC, the tasks of repairing or replacing pipes of individual sections the water network constantly arise. At the same time, attention should also be paid to the topological structure of the water network during its reconstruction. The need to improve the topological structure is clearly seen after performing hydraulic calculations and building piezometric maps. For comparison, piezometric maps need to build before and after the reconstruction of the water network. At the nodal points of the network, a geodetic mark, free pressure and piezometric mark are shown. Considering that water moves from a larger piezometric mark to a smaller one, the directions of water movement and water network nodes with minimal free pressures are determined. At the same time, flaws in the topological structure are found on the piezomap, which should be eliminated in order to increase its dependebility. It is known that dependebility includes 3 components: reliability, maintainability and durability. Durability is ensured by the choice of pipe material during design. If we take into account simultaneously reliability and maintainability, then a complex indicator should be used, namely, the availability factor Ka. It estimates the probability that at any given time the section of water network is in working condition. According to the topological structure, the water network of the city should be looped and have more connections between nodes. But in practice, this principle can not always be maintained, given the planning structure of the streets the city. Graphical representation of hydraulic calculations using piezomaps allows you to identify overloaded sections of the water network and increase its dependebility. When improving the topological structure, it is necessary to use the prof. Novokhatniy principle, namely, new sections must be introduced so that they unite the existing nodes of the existing water network. Hydraulic calculations have shown that by improving the topological structure of the water network the city Kremenchuk, the annual energy saving is about 452 thousand kWh, which corresponds to a saving of about UAH 2.7 million per year (at the cost of electricity 6 UAH per 1 kWh). Keywords: water supply system, giving-distributive complex, water network, topology, energy saving.

Overall performance evaluation of an urban water supply system: a case study of Debre Tabor Town in Ethiopia

Abstract Urban water utilities in Ethiopia, including Debre Tabor Town, commonly suffer from an intermittent water supply, water quality issues, poor service delivery, and other problems. Thus, the main focus of this study was to evaluate the actual performance level of the water supply system of the town based on hydraulic efficiency, quality, cost recovery and customer satisfaction. The water distribution system status was measured by using reliability, resilience, and vulnerability as performance indicators. Weightage Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) and household-based questionnaires were used to evaluate the water quality and customer satisfaction, respectively. Pressure and velocity-based sustainability index of 0.614 and 0.132 showed acceptable and unacceptable water supply status, respectively, and overall moderate sustainability. Results of the WAWQI revealed that more than half of the sampled tap waters were either poor or unfit for drinking purposes. The comparison of income collected from customers and the water production costs of the utility showed that only 34.31% of production cost is covered by customers. Generally, 62.6% of the society confirmed that they are unsatisfied with the existing water supply system. Thus, to improve the performance, it is recommended to address all the major social, economic, environmental and technical problems.

Development of a new design of deironing granulated filter for joint removal of iron and ammonium nitrogen from underground water

ABSTRACT Providing the population with high-quality drinking water is one of the main state tasks. Rural water supply systems and water supply systems of small settlements in the region require special attention, namely, the development of technologies for individual, small-sized water treatment equipment, as well as equipment for collective use, designed to purify groundwater for drinking purposes. In many areas, there are groundwaters containing excess levels of several pollutants, which makes their purification much more difficult. Elimination of shortcomings in the known methods of water iron removal is possible by reconstructing existing water supply systems from underground sources in small settlements. A rational solution is to search for groundwater treatment technologies that make it possible to provide the population with high-quality drinking water at a lower cost. The result of increasing the concentration of oxygen in water was obtained in the process of modifying the filter by changing the excess air exhaust system, which was made in the form of a perforated pipeline located in the lower half of the granular filter layer connected to the upper branch pipe. At the same time, high-quality groundwater treatment, sufficient simplicity and reliability in operation are ensured, local conditions and the inaccessibility of many objects and settlements in the region are taken into account as much as possible. After the filter was upgraded, the concentration of iron decreased from 4.4 to 0.27 mg/L and ammonium nitrogen from 3.5 to 1.5 mg/L.

Understanding questions and concerns about potable water reuse: An analysis of survey write‐in responses

AbstractUrban centers around the world are grappling with the challenges associated with population increases, drought, and projected water shortages. Potable water reuse (i.e., purification of municipal wastewater for reuse as drinking water) is an option for supplementing existing water supplies. Public perception research on potable water reuse has predominantly employed surveys with multiple‐choice questions that constrain survey respondents to describe their concerns by choosing from several response options. This research examines hundreds of write‐in responses to a large public survey in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to provide a detailed analysis of residents' questions and concerns about potable water reuse. Findings demonstrate that allowing respondents to voice their actual concerns adds richness and nuance that cannot be obtained from multiple‐choice response data alone. Especially with controversial resource considerations, such as potable water reuse, planners would benefit from a full understanding of the problem before engaging with the community.

Sustainable Development Goal – 6 (clean water and sanitation) Status and Challenges in Nepal

The paper explores access to clean water, proper sanitation and hygiene scenario, and major challenges in the context of Nepal through a review of literature and observation. Clean water and sanitation also fall under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)- 6. Despite improvements in the past few decades, 3.8 million population has no access to basic water services, and more than 10 million population is still deprived of improved sanitation facilities in Nepal. Poor socio-economic conditions and lack of education have the biggest impact on the current water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) scenario across the country. At the same time, the poor functionality status of existing water supply systems, and the impacts of climate-induced disasters such as floods and landslides cannot be underestimated in the light of water, and sanitation.

Estimation and mapping of water quality parameters using satellite images: a case study of Two Rivers Dam, Kenya

AbstractThe continuous water quality monitoring (WQM) of watersheds and the existing water supplies is a crucial step in realizing sustainable water development and management. However, the conventional approaches are time-consuming, labor intensive, and do not give spatial–temporal variations of the water quality indices. The advancements in remote sensing techniques have enabled WQM over larger temporal and spatial scales. This study used satellite images and an empirical multivariate regression model (EMRM) to estimate chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), total suspended solids (TSS), and turbidity. Furthermore, ordinary Kriging was applied to generate spatial maps showing the distribution of water quality parameters (WQPs). For all the samples, turbidity was estimated with an R2 and Pearson correlation coefficient (r) of 0.763 and 0.818, respectively while TSS estimation gave respective R2 and r values of 0.809 and 0.721. Chl-a was estimated with accuracies of R2 and r of 0.803 and 0.731, respectively. Based on the results, this study concluded that WQPs provide a spatial–temporal view of the water quality in time and space that can be retrieved from satellite data products with reasonable accuracy.

Toward a universal framework for evaluating transport resistances and driving forces in membrane-based desalination processes.

Desalination technologies using salt-rejecting membranes are a highly efficient tool to provide fresh water and augment existing water supplies. In recent years, numerous studies have worked to advance a variety of membrane processes with different membrane types and driving forces, but direct quantitative comparisons of these different technologies have led to confusing and contradictory conclusions in the literature. In this Review, we critically assess different membrane-based desalination technologies and provide a universal framework for comparing various driving forces and membrane types. To accomplish this, we first quantify the thermodynamic driving forces resulting from pressure, concentration, and temperature gradients. We then examine the resistances experienced by water molecules as they traverse liquid- and air-filled membranes. Last, we quantify water fluxes in each process for differing desalination scenarios. We conclude by synthesizing results from the literature and our quantitative analyses to compare desalination processes, identifying specific scenarios where each process has fundamental advantages.

System for Monitoring and Identifying theft from Domestic Water Supplies

This system for monitoring and identifying theft from domestic water supplies utilizes advanced sensors and machine learning algorithms to detect and analyze patterns of water usage, identifying anomalies and potential instances of theft. The system can be easily installed and integrated into existing water supply infrastructure, allowing for real-time monitoring and analysis of water usage data. By providing actionable insights and alerts, the system enables water supply companies to quickly respond to instances of theft, reducing losses and ensuring a more equitable distribution of resources. It utilizes various sensors and algorithms to detect anomalies in water usage patterns, which could indicate theft. The system includes a dashboard that allows water supply companies to monitor usage and receive alerts in real-time. By using this system, water supply companies can improve their efficiency, reduce water losses, and save costs associated with theft. The system is easy to install and can be integrated with existing water supply networks. The system has the potential to significantly reduce water losses due to theft, improving water supply sustainability and reducing costs for water providers. The system has the potential to significantly reduce water losses due to theft, improving water supply.

Određivanje koncentracije tricijuma u potoku Mlaka

The main purpose of this paper was to determine tritium concentration in surface water samples, using liquid scintillation counting. Surface water samples were collected from the Mlaka creek on three different locations near PC "Nuclear Facilities of Serbia". The importance of tritium monitoring around nuclear reactors and nuclear waste storages is due to prevention of possible internal exposure through ingestion of drinking waters with elevated levels of tritium from existing water supply in their nearby. Tritium concentrations that have been measured during the period from 2017 to 2022 ranged from less than 2 Bq/L to 103 Bq/L.

Evaluation of current and future water demand scenario and hydraulic performance of water distribution systems, a case study for Addis Kidam Town, Ethiopia

The hydraulic performance and future water demand of water distribution networks are major factors affecting the efficiency of water distribution systems throughout the world. Currently, Addis Kidam Town in Ethiopia is facing many water supply challenges. Their existing water distribution system is inadequate experiencing significant water loss, pressure, and flow velocity. All becoming worse with forecast population increases. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the hydraulic performance of the water distribution network considering both the existing water demand, together with forecast future water demand. The study was undertaken in Addis Kidam Town in Ethiopia using static analysis and WaterGEMS V8i software. The data were collected using experiment tests, field observation, focus group discussions, and interviews. Sampling sizes of pipes and junctions of distribution networks were used to evaluate velocity and pressure changes of 12% and 15%, respectively, from high and low-pressure zones. The results of this study indicated that the existing distribution network was designed to supply a population of 8,906; however, the current population was 25,854. The existing system can accordingly not meet current demand. The current system was only supplying 19.5 l/c/d to each family and was only able to supply 45.2% of households. All compounded because water loss of the distribution network was 37.9%. Simulation of existing distribution network at junctions and pipes has both 26.6% and 4.3%, and 2.4% and 29.9% lower pressures and velocities during peak and minimum hourly demand, respectively. Model performance values of RMSE, MAE, R2, and NSE of distribution networks were 0.65, 0.40, 0.96, and 0.82 and 0.56, 0.38, 0.98, and 0.78 during the calibration and validation of pressure, flow, and tank level, respectively. The research recommends a two-phase strategic water distribution system response beginning by upgrading and expanding the water distribution network, to first achieve a supply of 30 l/c/d by 2032, and then lifting this to the 30–80 l/c/d range before 2042. The proposed water management upgrading approach is expected to establish a good water supply for all residential communities of the town facing comparable challenges. In general, this study’s findings showed that the existing water supply system could not meet the present demand, let alone meet future growth demand. The existing modeling highlighted that significant increases in supply are possible by targeting system improvements, together with the need to find additional supply to meet both present and future water demand.

Hydraulic Pressure Management of Yerevan City’s Water Supply Systems

The system’s excessive pressure management after zoning is essential for improving the existing water supply operation efficiency. Our original research proves that pressure control reduces the leaks in the water supply network, increasing the reliability level of the internal and external networks and saving energy consumed in pumping systems. In recent years, 243 pressure regulating valves (PRV) have been installed in the 97 zones of the expanded water supply network in the Yerevan city (the difference between the levels in the city reaches up to 500 meters) for pressure control in complex terrain conditions.

WSI: A New Early Warning Water Survival Index for the Domestic Water Demand

A reservoir is an integrated water resource management infrastructure that can be used for water storage, flood control, power generation, and recreational activities. Predicting reservoir levels is critical for water supply management and can influence operations and intervention strategies. Currently, the water supply monitoring index is used to warn the water level of most reservoirs. However, there is no precise calculation method for the current water supply monitoring index to warn about the adequacy of the domestic water demand. Therefore, taking Feitsui Reservoir as an example, this study proposes a new early warning water survival index (WSI) to warn users whether there is a shortage of domestic water demand in the future. The calculation of WSI was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the daily rainfall, daily inflow, daily outflow, and daily water level of the Feitsui Reservoir were used as input variables to predict the water level of the Feitsui Reservoir by the machine learning method. In the second stage, the interpolation method was used to calculate the daily domestic water demand in Greater Taipei. Combined with the water level prediction results of the Feitsui Reservoir in the first stage, the remaining estimated days of domestic water supply from the Feitsui Reservoir to Greater Taipei City were calculated. Then, the difference between the estimated remaining days of domestic water demand and the moving average was converted by the bias ratio to obtain a new WSI. WSI can be divided into short-term bias ratios and long-term bias ratios. In this study, the degree of the bias ratio of WSI was given in three colors, namely, condition blue, condition green, and condition red, to provide users with a warning of the shortage of domestic water in the future. The research results showed that compared with the existing water supply monitoring index, the new WSI proposed in this study can faithfully present the warning of the lack of domestic water demand in the future.

Evaluating the Hydraulic Performance of Existing Water Supply Distribution System: The Case of Tebela Town of Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia

The adequate and reliable water supply in the developing towns of Ethiopia is becoming a challenge for most water utilities especially public service providers like Tebela town. The main objective of this research was to check the hydraulic performance of Tebela town's water distribution system by evaluating water demand and production, losses of water, and hydraulic parameters. Both secondary and primary data sources were used for this study. Primary data was collected through field surveys and photographs of relevant sites and infrastructures. The secondary data was collected from design documents, literature, journals, and office. Moreover, to analyse the existing water distribution system, a model was developed by using WaterGEMSv8i software. The model simulation run was performed for peak and low demand scenarios to analyze the distribution system. The analysis shows that the water supply coverage was 25.9%. The water loss of the town was 17.2% from the total water production. Modeling results showed violation of maximum and minimum pressure and velocity criteria at different junctions and pipes. After modifying the existing water distribution system, 96.23% of the junctions are in the recommended pressure range and 73.50% of the pipes are in the recommended velocity range at minimum hourly consumption. Generally the result of the analysis shows that the overall hydraulic performance of water distribution of the town was moderate, which is reflected by medium water production rate, water consumption, and nonrevenue water, also low water coverage, some velocity and pressure is not in permissible range. Therefore, it is important to rehabilitate and improve the water distribution system capacities, establish pressure zones, increase pumping rates, and drill additional boreholes to meet the current water demand and future demand.