Existing Water Infrastructure Research Articles

The Geopolitics of Water Infrastructure on the Kinmen Islands

ABSTRACT This paper examines the bordering and debordering deployment of water infrastructures on the Islands of Kinmen. Located less than 5 km off the coast of China, yet 200 km from their governing authority, Taiwan, Kinmen holds a critical position in cross-strait relations, and its water infrastructures have carried opposite political intentions. The 2018 Fujian-Kinmen water transfer pipeline serves as a debordering tool as it showcases that the People’s Republic of China could offer benefits to the people on the islands. In contrast, Kinmen’s existing water infrastructure, established during the Cold War, served as part of the bordering campaign to counter Communist China, as it represented progress and modern living under the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan). However, rather than assuming the successful deployment of infrastructure or a passive role of the islands, this paper highlights that the planning and construction of Kinmen’s water infrastructures were influenced by conditions of militarisation, shifting cross-strait relations, the islands’ socio-material constraints and their relationships with Taiwan and China. The case of Kinmen illustrates the capacity of water infrastructure to serve bordering and debordering purposes, as well as how other factors disrupt or facilitate these processes.

The effect of water loss on demand–supply departure of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Water scarcity is a critical issue affecting numerous regions, including Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The city’s growing population and rising water consumption place significant pressure on its existing water infrastructure. This study evaluates the impact of water loss due to leakages in the distribution system on the demand–supply gap in Addis Ababa, utilizing the WB EasyCalc software for analysis. Data analysis from 2023 indicate that monthly water loss contributes to an additional unmet demand of 5 million cubic meters (MCM), emphasizing the urgent need for effective water loss reduction strategies to enhance supply reliability. Currently, the city achieves only 42% water supply coverage, with an average loss of 300 L per connection per day and approximately 25,000 L lost per kilometer of pipeline daily. Furthermore, non-revenue water (NRW) accounts for 41.8% of total production, with real losses constituting 64%. The Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) score of 27 underscores the critical need for targeted leakage management interventions. The significance of this research lies in its quantification of water loss and its direct correlation with unmet demand in Addis Ababa. The findings provide essential insights for policymakers and stakeholders, highlighting the necessity for improved infrastructure management and strategic interventions to bolster water supply reliability. Implementing effective leakage reduction measures could substantially mitigate water scarcity challenges, thereby supporting sustainable urban development and enhancing public health outcomes in a city where access to clean water is vital for economic and social stability.

Local and catchment-scale effects of water retention measures at Lake Velence

AbstractClimate change manifested its adverse impacts last year, with an extreme drought leading to a drastically low water level in Lake Velence, Hungary. Nature-based solutions have the potential to alleviate these impacts locally. While a few initiatives have been implemented in Hungary, widespread adoption of these solutions is expected to be a goal for the more distant future.This research focuses on one catchment at Lake Velence to evaluate decision-maker's readiness and urban water management infrastructure for broadly implementing nature-based solutions. Methods include delineating the stormwater system and creating a numerical model to evaluate rainfall-runoff processes and the possible impacts of nature-based retentions. Surveys among local mayors were conducted to assess their perception of existing water infrastructures and implementations of nature-based solutions. Its widespread use may become significant, but its effect on the lake's water level remains negligible.

Climate‐resilient water infrastructure: A call to action

AbstractThe effects of climate change have put tremendous stress on our existing water infrastructure and necessitate rethinking of how we govern and manage these systems. This commentary is a call to action for placing a holistic understanding of climate resilience at the center of water governance, understanding and approaching the issues as contextual and interdisciplinary in nature. Drawing from experiences from the Netherlands and the United States, this commentary outlines climate adaptation as policy dilemma and the role and characteristics of engineering, nature‐based, and community‐focused approaches. It concludes with some thoughts on pathways forward and an invitation for future research and dialog.

Evaulting Positive and Negative Impact of Sand Dam Constrcted in Cadadley

In dry land areas like Somaliland shortage of water is very common. People have to travel for long distances to find water, and after it rains, most of the water is lost to evaporation or surface run off. The challenge in arid and semi-arid climates is how to harvest rainwater; most of villages in Somaliland need how to harvest rainwater and running water through their dry valleys. This study aimed to evaluate the positive and negative impact of existing water infrastructure (sand dams) in dry rivers in Cadadley district and to compare these with appraisal of sites yet to be developed that can be constructed sand dams in Cadadley region Somaliland. This study employs a method known as probing, which involves hammering a rod into the middle of the riverbed until it makes contact with the floor beneath the sand, producing a dull sound. The level of the sand is then marked on the rod, which is subsequently pulled straight up without any twisting. The crucial factor in determining the location for constructing a sand storage dam is the depth of the basement or impermeable layer relative to the riverbed surface. Ideally, the dam should be built where the impermeable layer is closest to the riverbed surface. The result shows that sand dam need reconstruction because of short of their spill ways and there is poor choice location.

Carbon footprint assessment of water and wastewater treatment works in Scottish islands

Quantifying the global warming potential of existing water infrastructure is an important step in realising the water industry's commitment to net-zero carbon. Whilst there has been an improved understanding of the global warming potential of centralized urban water infrastructure, rigorous analyses of smaller-scale rural systems are rare. This work adopts a life cycle assessment to ascertain the global warming potential of existing drinking water treatment works and wastewater treatment works associated with five Scottish islands: Arran, Iona, Jura, Barra, and Vatersay. The water systems, from source to sink, along with the use of chemicals, transportation, energy, and the reuse of waste products from water infrastructure are considered. The global warming potentials of the island's drinking water treatment works ranged from 0.18 to 0.79 kgCO2-eq/m3 of drinking water, while that for wastewater treatment works were 0.51 to 1.14 kgCO2-eq/m3 of wastewater. The global warming potential for water services on the islands can be as much as 7-times of that water services across Scotland as previously reported. Major global warming potential contributor in drinking water treatment works was the electricity consumed by the membrane bioreactors. The modelled direct emission of methane from sludge in septic tanks and for land reclamation made the largest contribution to global warming potential. It was also highly sensitive to model parameters, which highlights the need for a comprehensive exploration of process emissions from septic tanks and sludge handling. This analysis of existing rural water infrastructure is a baseline against which potential alternative low-carbon technology configurations can be compared.

Chance-constrained vulnerability assessment of smart water distribution systems against stealthy false data injection attacks

Smart water distribution systems (SWDSs) have not only enhanced the monitoring and control of the entire water infrastructure but have also jeopardized its security and resilience. The state-of-the-art examined the uncertainties in the water supply network to obtain optimal design parameters to ensure hydraulic integrity. However, the investigations of uncertainties in SWDSs from the cybersecurity perspective remain unexplored. To address this limitation, this paper utilizes a robust chance-constrained optimization strategy to scrutinize the vulnerable location of SWDSs against False Data Injection (FDI) attacks. This is achieved by factoring in the probabilistic behavior of water demand at junctions that can potentially facilitate stealthy FDI attacks on the hourly measurements of the pump’s flow rate. The proposed nonlinear model is validated with several case studies reflecting the real-world cyberattack consequences including cutoff water supply of the network, enhanced power consumption of the pump, and the undesirable pressure surge in the system at strategic locations of SWDSs. As a result of the studied cases, the cyberattack consequences on the entire water supply network are obtained while highlighting the threat-prone regions of the network. This paper contributes to embedding additional security layers to the existing water infrastructure at the vulnerable links and junctions.

Irrigation System for a Farming Facility

This endeavor aims to introduce a reinforced concrete rectangular water tank and a corresponding distribution system at the Provincial Integrated Agricultural Demonstration Farm and Training Center, situated in Barangay Ipil, Surigao City. The objective of this study is to address the challenges faced by workers in cultivating crops due to the inadequacies of the farm's existing water infrastructure. By leveraging engineering principles, established guidelines, and computer software tools, the design of an efficient water system will be meticulously executed to ensure a reliable water supply for crop cultivation. The research has thoroughly identified the crops currently cultivated on the farm, along with their respective areas. An assessment of the water source has been conducted to mitigate potential contamination risks to the crops. Rigorous water analysis has been performed, confirming that the proposed tank design is fully capable of meeting the water requirements of the crops. The design of both the water tank and distribution system, guided by comprehensive analysis, has been tailored to ensure operational efficiency and system stability. Consequently, it can be confidently concluded that once implemented, the project's designed infrastructure will effectively fulfill its intended purpose.

Scalable graphene sensor array for real-time toxins monitoring in flowing water

Risk management for drinking water often requires continuous monitoring of various toxins in flowing water. While they can be readily integrated with existing water infrastructure, two-dimensional (2D) electronic sensors often suffer from device-to-device variations due to the lack of an effective strategy for identifying faulty devices from preselected uniform devices based on electronic properties alone, resulting in sensor inaccuracy and thus slowing down their real-world applications. Here, we report the combination of wet transfer, impedance and noise measurements, and machine learning to facilitate the scalable nanofabrication of graphene-based field-effect transistor (GFET) sensor arrays and the efficient identification of faulty devices. Our sensors were able to perform real-time detection of heavy-metal ions (lead and mercury) and E. coli bacteria simultaneously in flowing tap water. This study offers a reliable quality control protocol to increase the potential of electronic sensors for monitoring pollutants in flowing water.

Catchment‐scale skill assessment of seasonal precipitation forecasts across South Korea

AbstractClimate change is expected to make droughts more frequent and severe all over the world. South Korea is no exception and is already suffering from extreme droughts such as one that prolonged from 2013 to 2015 and caused nation‐wide damage. To mitigate drought damages, better management of existing water infrastructure is essential. A promising opportunity to improve operational decisions is to make use of seasonal weather forecasts that are provided by general circulation models and can be downscaled to the catchment scale. This study hence assesses the skill of seasonal forecasts over 20 catchments in South Korea, where the largest reservoirs are located. Datasets from four weather forecasting centres (ECMWF, UK Met Office, Météo France and DWD) have been evaluated over the period 2011–2020, and their skill quantified using the Continuous Ranked Probability Skill Score (CRPSS). We analyse how skill varies across the seasons and years, and if it can be linked to catchments characteristics. In doing so, we develop a methodology and a Python package to implement it, which is freely available for future applications to other regions. As for the study case, our results showed that among the four forecasting centres, ECMWF's forecasts were the most skilful in South Korea. In particular, seasonal forecasts outperform the climatology for 2 months of lead time and are more skilful during the wet season and in dry years. Linear bias correction is found to be useful to correct systematic seasonal biases, whereas we found no significant correlation between the catchment characteristics and forecast skill. We also investigated the possibility of anticipating dry years from seasonal forecasts and/or ENSO indices but found no significant link.

Scenario simulation and analysis in the transboundary Yarmouk River basin using a WEAP model

ABSTRACT Water is a finite resource but an essential one. The continuously increasing demand leads to competition and conflict over limited resources. Syria, Jordan, and Israel compete over the water resources in the transboundary Yarmouk River basin where two water agreements dictate the allocation of water. The two arrangements are far from being efficient and fair while little cooperation is being made over sharing the resources that are being over-exploited. In this study, water sustainability was investigated under projected developments and trends based on the current use and allocation regime in the watershed using several scenarios. A one bucket soil moisture model was adopted and optimized in order to fully represent the ever-changing hydrology of the basin using the Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) tool. Demands along with the existing water infrastructure and their operation were modelled despite the lack of many data and the huge uncertainty in some. Simulation of business as usual scenario showed that continuing with the current use cannot be sustainable in the short and long term. The growth of both agriculture and population produced huge water shortages in all demand sectors. Under climate change scenarios RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, surface water availability and the retention of dams reduced significantly. The share of Jordan from the Yarmouk River was the most vulnerable to climate change impacts. Enhancing irrigation efficiency and a more stable population growth based on the UN medium variant population projection showed improvements in water coverage within all demand sectors. Analysis of future scenarios suggests that water shortage is expected in all riparian states of the basin but can be mitigated by reducing demands.

Minimally Invasive Online Water Monitor

Sensor installation on water infrastructure is challenging due to requirements for service interruption, specialized personnel, regulations and reliability as well as the resultant high costs. Here, a minimally invasive installation method is introduced based on hot-tapping and immersion of a sensor probe. A modular architecture is developed that enables the use of interchangeable multisensor probes, nonspecialist installation and servicing, low-power operation and configurable sensing and connectivity. A prototype implementation with a temperature, pressure, conductivity and flow multisensor probe is presented and tested on an evaluation rig. This article demonstrates simple installation, reliable and accurate sensing capability as well as remote data acquisition. The demonstrated minimally invasive multisensor probes provide an opportunity for the deployment of water quality sensors that typically require immersion, such as pH and spectroscopic composition analysis. This design allows dynamic deployment on existing water infrastructure with expandable sensing capability and minimal interruption, which can be key to addressing important sensing parameters, such as optimal sensor network density and topology.

The Impact of Electric Bidet Diffusion on Municipal Water Infrastructure

Electric bidets have become widespread in Japan and are now rapidly being installed across the rest of Asia, the United States, and the European Union. However, the impact on water infrastructure has not yet been sufficiently evaluated. Using Japan as an example, we assess the impact of the spread of electric bidets on the existing water infrastructure and use the results to predict the impact in countries in which the spread of electric bidets is expected in the future. In this study, we first proposed a model of electric bidet use on the basis of the results of a questionnaire survey. In Japan, the frequency of electric bidet use is considered to be the same as that of toilet use, and this model is used by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) in its official evaluation of equipment performance. However, in this survey, we found that 30–40% of respondents did not use electric bidets, even though they have become commonplace in Japan. The reason for this was a vague sense of anxiety about sanitation. Based on the results of the survey, the model for electric bidet use was set to once a day for men for flushing following defecation and once a day for women for either flushing following defecation or bidet flushing. This is considerably less frequent than the conventional Japanese electric bidet use model for women, which models for one flush following defecation and three flushes following urination. Japan’s Energy Conservation Law requires improved energy efficiency in 32 items of equipment, of which the electric bidet is one. Because of this regulation, the electricity consumption of electric bidets has decreased by one fourth in the past 10 years. When a new model representing actual usage was applied, the environmental impact of the electric bidets currently sold was shown to be minimal.

Review of water safety planning processes and options for improved climate resilient infrastructure in Vanuatu

Abstract Vanuatu is a small island state ranked the most at-risk for natural hazards globally. Access to safe and secure water is limited, particularly for poor and rural residents. It is projected that climate change will increase temperatures, sea level, cyclone intensity, and extreme rainfall events in Vanuatu. As the impacts of climate change become clearer, it is becoming easier to predict the consequences of those changes on water infrastructure. The Government of Vanuatu, Department of Water Resources (DoWR) wants to support communities to enhance the resilience of community water supply infrastructure, despite the additional challenge of climate change. Since 2013, DoWR has adapted Water Safety Plans to the local context with Drinking Water Safety and Security Plans (DWSSPs). An analysis of actions taken after 199 DWSSPs, site visits and interviews, revealed an opportunity to integrate climate change more into existing community risk planning processes. The analysis also identified many potential problems with existing water infrastructure that increase their exposure to climate risks as well as possible improvements to decrease those risks. As a result, adjustments were made to the current water safety planning approach, so that communities review hazards associated with climate change and identify resilient infrastructure improvements.

Water Governance and Management in the 21st Century: A Case Study of Pakistan

Given the continuous population growth and climate change, water resources are becoming increasingly scarce. With the escalation of this water crisis, water management and governance have become essential concerns across policy agendas. Every country has a different regulatory system, policy framework, specific management requirements, institutional challenges, and capacity gaps concerning the administration of its water resources. The present study focuses on the policy frameworks and institutions for managing water resources in Pakistan at both provincial and federal levels. The paper analyzes water governance challenges and major hurdles regarding effective water management and the development of water resources in the country. A descriptive analysis of the country’s water management and water distribution between the federation and federating units is based on secondary data sources with a qualitative approach through a desk research method. While describing the underpinning issues and challenges of water governance and management in Pakistan, the study findings reveal that the country needs to adopt a collaborative approach towards water governance and management and capacitate the relevant institutions and stakeholders to perform their mandated tasks effectively to ensure a water-secure future for Pakistan. The study recommends launching mass awareness campaigns concerning efficient usage of water, adopting intelligent agriculture techniques, and fast-tracking the completion of new reservoirs while discouraging build-neglect-rebuild policies for the existing water infrastructure. The study also presents limitations and recommendations for future research.

Drinking Water Insecurity in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh: How Far to SDG 6.1?

Substantial progress has been seen in the drinking water supply as per the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), but achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), particularly SGD 6.1 regarding safely managed drinking water with much more stringent targets, is considered as a development challenge. The problem is more acute in low-income water-scarce hard-to-reach areas such as the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh, where complex hydrogeological conditions and adverse water quality contribute to a highly vulnerable and insecure water environment. Following the background, this study investigated the challenges and potential solutions to drinking water insecurity in a water-scarce area of southwest coastal Bangladesh using a mixed-methods approach. The findings revealed that water insecurity arises from unimproved, deteriorated, unaffordable, and unreliable sources that have significant time and distance burdens. High rates of technical dysfunction of the existing water infrastructure contribute to water insecurity as well. Consequently, safely managed water services are accessible to only 12% of the population, whereas 64% of the population does not have basic water. To reach the SDG 6.1 target, this underserved community needs well-functioning readily accessible water infrastructure with formal institutional arrangement rather than self-governance, which seems unsuccessful in this low-income context. This study will help the government and its development partners in implementing SDG action plans around investments to a reliable supply of safe water to the people living in water-scarce hard-to-reach coastal areas.

From Power to Legitimacy—Explaining Historical and Contemporary Water Conflict at Yesa Reservoir (Spain) and Gross Reservoir (USA) Using Path Dependency

Conflict over new dams and reservoirs is well-studied, but less is known about controversies over the reoperation of existing water infrastructure. This paper presents two cases of reoperation that have been embroiled in conflict: the Gross Reservoir Expansion Project in Colorado, United States, and the Yesa Reservoir Regrowth project in Aragon and Navarra, Spain. A historical analysis of each of the cases relies on process tracing, reaching back to their construction in the 1950s up to present day, and a cross-case comparison distills findings on the causes of historical and contemporary conflict. The paper adds empirical evidence to the phenomenon of path dependency, and argues that a transition of the dominant mechanism of institutional reproduction occurs in the cases—from power to legitimacy—which in turn informs us about the historical and present-day conflicts. We find that through the contemporary reoperation, water service providers are experiencing a legitimacy crisis related to the quickly-evolving values of water users, and their access to competing sources of knowledge and expertise.

Prioritization of Sub-Watersheds to Sediment Yield and Evaluation of Best Management Practices in Highland Ethiopia, Finchaa Catchment

Excessive soil loss and sediment yield in the highlands of Ethiopia are the primary factors that accelerate the decline of land productivity, water resources, operation and function of existing water infrastructure, as well as soil and water management practices. This study was conducted at Finchaa catchment in the Upper Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia to estimate the rate of soil erosion and sediment loss and prioritize the most sensitive sub-watersheds using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated using the observed streamflow and sediment data. The average annual sediment yield (SY) in Finchaa catchment for the period 1990–2015 was 36.47 ton ha−1 yr−1 with the annual yield varying from negligible to about 107.2 ton ha−1 yr−1. Five sub-basins which account for about 24.83% of the area were predicted to suffer severely from soil erosion risks, with SY in excess of 50 ton ha−1 yr−1. Only 15.05% of the area within the tolerable rate of loss (below 11 ton ha−1yr−1) was considered as the least prioritized areas for maintenance of crop production. Despite the reasonable reduction of sediment yields by the management scenarios, the reduction by contour farming, slope terracing, zero free grazing and reforestation were still above the tolerable soil loss. Vegetative contour strips and soil bund were significant in reducing SY below the tolerable soil loss, which is equivalent to 63.9% and 64.8% reduction, respectively. In general, effective and sustainable soil erosion management requires not only prioritizations of the erosion hotspots but also prioritizations of the most effective management practices. We believe that the results provided new and updated insights that enable a proactive approach to preserve the soil and reduce land degradation risks that could allow resource regeneration.

Universal Access to Clean Water for Tribes in the Colorado River Basin

The coronavirus pandemic has tragically highlighted the vast and long standing inequities facing Tribal communities, including disparities in water access. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN) are at least 3.5 times more likely than white persons to contract COVID-19. Limited access to running water is one of the main factors contributing to this elevated rate of incidence. This report describes current conditions among Tribes in the Colorado River Basin. It outlines the four main challenges in drinking water access: (1) Native American households are more likely to lack piped water services than any other racial group; (2) Inadequate water quality is pervasive in Indian country; (3) Existing water infrastructure is deteriorating or inadequate; and (4) Operation and maintenance of water systems is a critical component of ensuring long-term water security. The report also examines existing federal assistance programs to provide drinking water access to Tribes. In exchange for the cession of millions of acres of lands, Tribes received certain promises from the federal government. These promises often included the establishment of a reservation as a permanent homeland for Tribes. Based upon an underlying trust responsibility, the federal government has a duty to protect Tribal treaty rights, lands, assets, and resources. Access to a clean, reliable supply of water is basic to human health and clearly a necessary component to providing a habitable and permanent homeland. In at least partial recognition and fulfillment of its treaty and trust responsibility to provide access to clean water for Tribes, various federal agencies have established programs that provide support for water related projects. However, these programs are often underfunded and have other limitations. As a result, obtaining significant progress in providing universal access to clean water for all Americans has remained elusive. Finally, the report concludes with policy recommendations to address Tribal community water needs. Key recommendations include adopting a whole of government approach and fully funding federal programs related to Tribal drinking water projects. A window of opportunity has opened to address water insecurity in Indian country. It is critical that action be taken before that window closes and these issues are ignored for several more generations.

The third route: Using extreme decentralization to create resilient urban water systems

For much of the world's urban population, centralized treatment plants and pipe networks built in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries provide homes with water and a means of disposing of the resulting wastewater. Due to the real or perceived inability of existing systems to deliver safe and palatable water, many users apply additional treatment prior to consumption. Where piped water supply is lacking, drinking water is obtained through water vendors at considerable cost. Despite economic inefficiencies and public health risks inherent in these two water supply systems, the high sunk costs of existing water infrastructure along with low returns on investment and the inflexible nature of the institutions involved in water provision have slowed down the diffusion of alternative approaches that may prove to be less expensive, more adaptable and safer than the current system. We advocate a third, complementary route: household-based personalized water systems. Initially, relatively affluent people expecting more functionality and sustainability from water systems will invest in personalized water systems that allow them to tailor their water to their personal preferences. This approach will tap into the tremendous creativity-base of individual users and entrepreneurs, facilitating the type of co-creation that accelerated the rapid development of consumer electronics. Competition among manufacturers and economies of scale that accrue as these systems become more popular will lead to rapid innovation that drives down costs, improves performance and expands access. These solutions complement emerging approaches for sanitation and resource recovery that do not rely upon sewers for the management of human waste.