Sport Psychology Research Articles

Exploring purposeful outdoor physical activity and mindfulness for wellbeing: a practitioners' perspective

Mindfulness training can improve one's capacity for self-regulation, including attentional processes, behaviour, and mood control (Tang, Hölzel & Posner, 2015, Nature Rev Neurosci, 16, 213-225). Green exercise has been shown to enhance both physiological and mental health measures with all populations, including adults with long-term diseases or mental health problems, benefiting from outdoor, nature-based interventions (Coventry et al., 2021, Pop Health, 16, 100934; Pretty, Peacock, Sellens & Griffin, 2005, Int J Health Res, 15, 319-337). Engaging in outdoor activities and developing an affective relationship with nature is a key mechanism on the path to wellbeing benefits that go beyond the advantages of simply visiting or being in nature (Richardson & McEwan, 2018, Front Psych, 9, 1500). The aim of the study is to gain insight into how purposeful outdoor physical activity can be used as a form of mindfulness and its potential impact on wellbeing from a practitioner’s perspective. 6-8 exercise professionals aged 18 and over, who have sufficient knowledge of exercise and wellbeing, for example exercise psychologists or health and wellbeing coaches will be recruited for this study. Recruitment for this study will take place by word of mouth and contact directly through a company or LinkedIn. Exercise psychologists must be BASES or BPS accredited. Data will be collected through interviews either at a location to suit the participant or remote (over Microsoft Teams) and analysed using thematic analysis. Interviews will be recorded using the voice memos app on an iPhone and then written up using the dictate function on Microsoft Word. Information collected in addition to the interview will be, participants sex and job title, including how long they have been in their position for. Interviews with each participant will include the following topic areas; discussion around their job and experiences so far within their job, outdoor physical activity and what it means to them, challenges or barriers they have observed from working with clients around physical activity, exploring their opinions on outdoor physical activity in green space, personal experiences being physically active in green space, self-development as a practitioner in the exercise psychology or health and wellbeing and any future recommendations for either other practitioners to think about when working with clients or individuals to think about when trying to include green space in their current physical activity routines.

‘Hanging up the boots, picking up the whistle’: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of the player-to-coach transition in elite football

Athletes encounter a complex decision-making process when it comes to their athletic retirement. While some athletes step away from their sport entirely, others opt to pursue a coaching career within it. Recent pedagogical research has revealed the ubiquitous nature of this phenomenon within the elite academy setting. However, despite the prevalence of this coaching pathway, there remains a lack of literature concerning this unique career transition within sports psychology. By providing nuanced and textured accounts of the transition from athletic retirement to the elite coaching environment, this study sought to broaden our understanding of the lived-experience of the player-turned-coach in elite football. The subsequent study used semi-structured interviews and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to collect and analyse the first-hand accounts of elite academy coaches who were former professional footballers in the EPL and EFL. Interpretation of the coaches’ own sensemaking allowed us to derive meaning through hermeneutic methods based on Heideggerian philosophical traditions, while convergent and divergent themes were revealed by applying an idiographic approach. The phenomenological, hermeneutic, and idiographic aspects of this investigation serve to underpin the epistemological and ontological tenets of the methodology applied in this study. IPA was chosen as a means of better understanding the perspective of coaches who have experienced this unique journey and how they navigated the re-negotiation of their athletic identity whilst simultaneously developing their coaching philosophy. Phenomenological methods view the participant as the “expert”; therefore, no hypothesis is required. However, we hoped to ascertain: [1] how the athletic identity carries over into coaching philosophy; [2] whether this linear transition mitigates the sense of loss often associated with athletic retirement; [3] how returning to coach at the club in which they developed influences the independent formation of beliefs and practices; and [4] whether there is a risk of perpetuation of practice, as clubs favour their former players over outside candidates. This study sought to understand the lived experience of the player-to-coach transition and aimed to provide insight into this process to better facilitate the athletes and coaches on either side of this phenomenon.

Perception of coach leadership style as a predictor of team cohesion in elite women’s touch rugby

Coach leadership style can hold a bearing on the development of a cohesive and integrated team, which can influence performance goals. Cohesion, as explored in Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Model of Leadership (MML), is defined as the ability for a team to remain united in the pursuit of shared goals (Burke et al., 2014, In Beauchamp & Eyes (Eds.) Group Dynamics in Exercise and Sport Psychology (pp. 213). Taylor & Francis). To date, numerous studies have explored the impact of coach leadership styles on team cohesion, typically inferring detrimental effects of autocratic leadership styles. However, there is limited research conducted with an elite female sample, particularly in amateur international competition settings. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between perceived leadership behaviour and team cohesion within the Scotland women’s team at the European Touch Rugby Championships in 2022. Accordingly, it was hypothesised that: H1 Leadership behaviours of training and instruction, social support, positive feedback and democratic leadership would be positive predictors of task cohesion, and H2 Autocratic leadership behaviour would be negative predictors of both social and task cohesion. After securing institutional ethical approval (Ref: 33249-A-Nov/2023-47988-1) and permission from the board of Scottish Touch Association, members of the Scotland Women’s team competing at the European Championships in 2022 were contacted to take part in the study (N= 15). Participants completed the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) that assessed coach leadership behaviours and the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) that assessed cohesion. Data were checked for univariate outliers and the Mahalanobis test revealed no multivariate outliers. Skewness and kurtosis established normality and multiple regression analyses was used to predict cohesion from the five LSS subscales. Overall, no significant results were found for ATGT (F5, 9 = 0.56, P > 0.05), ATGS (F5, 9 = 1.27, P > 0.05), GIT (F5, 9 = 0.66, P > 0.05), and GIS (F5, 9 = 0.70, P > 0.05). In conclusion, athlete perceived leadership did not predict team cohesion, but the direction of relationships between factors partially aligns with previous research and indicates that research with a larger sample of female elite athletes is warranted under non-retrospective conditions. Further research with female samples has the potential to provide insights into the intricate relationship between leadership and cohesion, which could improve performance for elite female teams.

Coach–athlete relationship as a predictor of contextual motivation in weightlifters

Coach behaviour is an important predictor of athlete motivation (Jowett, 2017). The coach–athlete relationship can be defined as a dynamic interaction wherein the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of both athlete and coaches are mutually and causally interconnected (Jowett and Shanmugam, 2016, In Schinke, McGannon & Smith (Eds.), Routledge International Handbook of Sport Psychology, Relational Coaching in Sport: Its psychological underpinnings and practical effectiveness (pp. 471–484). Routledge). This present study explored the coach–athlete relationship through the lens of Self-Determination Theory. This multidimensional theory underscores various facets of motivation suggesting that coaches' behaviours influence athletes' motivation by directly influencing their three basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2008, Can Psych, 49, 182–185). The study builds on previous research highlighting the pivotal role of coaches in shaping positive sporting environments and the significance of closeness, commitment and compatibility in the coach–athlete relationship (Jowett & Nezlek, 2012, J Soc Pers Rel, 29, 287–301). The purpose of the present study was to further understanding of the association between the coach–athlete relationship and contextual motivation among weightlifters. Previous studies have expounded a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that outlined a sequence wherein coaches’ actions bear influence on athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation by shaping their perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, J Sports Sci, 21, 883–904). It was hypothesised that a coach–athlete relationship scores would be a negative predictor of amotivation and external regulation (H1). It would, however, be a positive predictor of more intrinsic forms of motivation (H2). Specifically, those who perceive their coaches as supportive, understanding and competent will report higher levels of intrinsic motivation within the training environment. Following institutional ethical clearance (33249-A-Nov/2023-47988-1), a sample of male and female weightlifters (N = 20; females = 11) were asked to complete an 11-item version of Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2003) and the 18-item Sports Motivation Scale (SMS-2; Pelletier et al., 2013). There was no time gap in the administration of the two questionnaires. A series of standard linear regression analyses was computed using CART-Q subscales as predictor variables and each SMS-2 subscale as the dependent variable. H1 was not supported, as the CART-Q subscales were not a significant negative predictor of amotivation and external forms of motivation. H2 was supported given that the CART-Q subscales were positive predictors of intrinsic motivation subscales.

Role of Sports Psychology in Context to Development of Sports Performance

Role of Sports Psychology in Context to Development of Sports Performance

Introducing Empowered Consent to Deal With the Current Challenges in Applied Sport Psychology

There has been a paucity of literature discussing how to address consent procedures as part of ethics, practitioner development, and best practice in applied sport psychology. Several researchers have addressed ethical challenges (e.g., out-of-session contact, overidentification, time, and space). However, none have substantially considered the sport-specific issues related to consent, which sits at the heart of best practice. The scarcity of discussing consent is limiting sport psychology’s potential to establish itself as a more recognized profession. This article highlights some contextual issues that challenge the idea and efficacy of informed consent. It proposes adapting consent procedures in the collaboration between sport psychology practitioners and clients to better address the current contextual challenges in applied sport psychology. In doing so, the current paper introduces Empowered Consent, which is specifically designed to empower athletes and address challenges related to choosing interventions, contractual obligations, visibility in the environment, and staff trying to gain insights into confidential information. The author offers a model to enhance applied practice for those collaborating with athletes and other clients in sport.

Case-Conceptualization Practices in Sport and Performance Psychology

Case conceptualization is an important stage in the sport and performance psychology (SPP) consulting process. The conceptualization of a case can influence a consultant’s understanding of the underpinning mechanisms contributing to a presenting concern, interventions selected to help a client, and the effectiveness of provided services. Guidelines for case conceptualization have been developed for SPP professionals, but little is known about how this activity is undertaken in practice. The purpose of this study was to investigate the case-conceptualization methods and approaches of certified SPP professionals. Fifty-two certified mental performance consultants completed an online qualitative survey exploring how they conceptualized cases. Our findings suggested that SPP consultants viewed case conceptualization as an ongoing process, something that helps a consultant understand a client’s presenting concerns and guide any intervention plans, a collaboration between client and consultant, and a way to evaluate the effectiveness of their practice.

Having Impact and Doing It Quickly: The Place for Brief and Single-Session Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies in Sport Psychology Practice

Cognitive-behavioral therapies and related approaches are highly prevalent within sport psychology practice. Traditionally, these approaches are delivered across interventions comprising multiple sessions. However, in the fast-paced environments in which many applied sport psychologists operate, practitioners are sometimes required to provide fast, effective, and impactful interventions to athletes at their point of need within a single session. Single-session integrated cognitive-behavioral therapy presents a potentially effective approach for practice wherein time is often at a premium, and there is frequently pressure to make an impact quickly to improve performance. In this article, we put forward a stimulus piece that contextualizes single-session integrated cognitive-behavioral therapy and overviews how sport psychology practitioners may use such techniques with athletes. We also put forth a call for more practitioners to report more idiographic case studies that feature the use of brief or single-session interventions to further build the evidence base for such approaches.

The Inducers of an Elite Male Table Tennis Player’s Emotional Experience Throughout His Career: A Single Case Study Based on the Critical-Incident Method

Despite a growing interest in emotions in sport psychology, little has been written about the contextual elements triggering athletes’ emotional experience. This single case study aimed to analyze the inducers of an elite table tennis player’s emotional experience throughout his career. He was ranked among the 15 best players in the world, and his career spanned more than 20 years. Inspired by the critical-incident method, we conducted a lengthy interview with the player, during which he related the most significant moments of his career. The categorization of the 96 critical incidents collected highlighted four inducers of positive emotions and five inducers of negative emotions, emerging over five periods (exponential progression, first difficulties, major difficulties, second career, and end of career). These findings contribute to the development of an innovative single-case-study design, allowing an understanding of the contextual origin of athletes’ emotions over the long term. Finally, highlights are discussed and recommendations for the practice of sport psychology are formulated.

Optimizing Performance in Orchestral Settings: Sports Psychology in Music

In recent years, due to the rise in sports psychology and its prominence in professional leagues like the NBA and the NFL, other forms of performance/industrial-organizational psychology have also seen more development. The field of music performance psychology, however, has long been underdeveloped and ignored because of the difficult nature of its research. The long-standing stigmas of the music world have discouraged the collaboration between psychological practice and musicians, leading to a lack of knowledge and care for injuries in music performance. Due to the limited research designs that are possible in truly producing ample and consistent results for improvements in music, the methodology of sports psychology may just be the future direction more music performance psychologists should aim toward. This paper outlines the overlap between the sports and music industries while maintaining a realistic perspective on the viability of sport psychology methods’ incorporation into music performance psychology. More research that is both thorough and reliable must be done to improve the effectiveness of music psychology’s methods, but with the strong relationship between sports and music, the future seems to present optimistic results that will truly end the ancient, inaccurate ideas that exist among musicians.

A Single Case Study of Sports Psychological Counseling Based on Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) for Modern Triathlon Adolescent Athletes Experiencing Peer Relationship Difficulties

A Single Case Study of Sports Psychological Counseling Based on Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) for Modern Triathlon Adolescent Athletes Experiencing Peer Relationship Difficulties

스포츠심리상담에 따른 여자 사이클 선수의 정서상태와 스포츠수행전략 및 목표성향의 변화

스포츠심리상담에 따른 여자 사이클 선수의 정서상태와 스포츠수행전략 및 목표성향의 변화

A Single Case Study on the Self-directed Sports Psychological Skills Training Program of Figure Skating Athletes

A Single Case Study on the Self-directed Sports Psychological Skills Training Program of Figure Skating Athletes

My feet hurt: a qualitative study of self-handicapping in distance runners

ABSTRACT Self-handicapping is a form of self-presentation that allows individuals to protect their self-esteem in the event of failure or enhance their self-esteem via successful performance [Coudevylle, G. R., Gernigon, C., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2011). Self-esteem, self-confidence, anxiety and claimed self-handicapping: A mediational analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(6), 670–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.008]. Two forms of self-handicapping have been identified; claimed and behavioural. Claimed self-handicapping involves verbalised excuses or justifications for potential failures whereas behavioural self-handicapping is characterised by effort withdrawal or engagement in negative behaviours that create obstacles to performance. This study explored self-handicapping in distance runners who participate in races of a half-marathon distance or longer. Participants (N = 158; Mage = 43.4 years, SD = 11.3) completed an open-response survey about their experience of self-handicapping by self and others. Data were analysed using inductive content analysis. Major categories identified for claimed self-handicapping were injury/illness, training, nutrition, sleep/fatigue, personal factors, and external factors. Major categories identified for behavioural self-handicapping were poor preparation, poor nutrition practices, equipment issues, and deliberate illness/injury. Several subcategories were also identified for each form of self-handicapping based on reoccurring codes in the data. Claimed self-handicapping was more readily discussed and reported than behavioural self-handicapping, which suggests that runners are using self-handicapping for self-presentation rather than self-sabotage. Future researchers are encouraged to focus on the reasons for self-handicapping and the consequences of self-handicapping in distance runners.

Does Ultra-Endurance Passion Make Athletes Happy?

Sport psychology research of ultra-endurance (UE) athletes focused predominantly on their psychological characteristics, traits, and behaviors. However, their happiness and passion, as well as a unified framework for UE hobby phenomenon, were not sufficiently investigated. This study aims to: (1) identify the main contributors to happiness and passion of non-professional UE athletes; and (2) explore the possible relationships between types of sport passion, motivation, and athletic identity. During data collection, 116 non-professional UE athletes (mean age 43.66 years, SD = 8.97, 16.4% female) responded to an online questionnaire. Statistical analyses revealed that obsessive UE passion (p < 0.05) and amotivation (p < 0.05) predicted lower levels of happiness. A higher level of obsessive passion was predicted by extrinsic motivation (p < 0.005), amotivation (p < 0.05), and exclusivity identity (p < 0.001); a lower level was predicted by social identity (p < 0.05) and years in sports (p < 0.05). Weekly training hours and age correlated positively with passion strength, while amotivation was strongly negatively related to training volume. These results indicate that happiness of UE athletes depends on the type of sport passion formed and the quality of the underlying motivation: obsessive passion and amotivation seem to be the main enemies of happiness for UE athletes. This novel finding connecting passion, happiness, and motivation contributes to both a better understanding of the psychology of UE athletes and has practical implications for UE athletes, coaches, athletes' social circles, and sport psychologists. Due to known maladaptive outcomes of obsessive passion, including its negative impact on overall well-being, health, and now also on happiness, its formation in UE athletes needs to be observed and prevented. While the study shows predictors of obsessive passion and high vs. low obsessive passion, future research should investigate how harmonious passion impacts athletes' happiness, motivation, and identity. Likewise, research among the UE entourage would help to better understand the social impact of UE as a serious hobby and the formation of UE lifestyles. We also suggest our Temporal Framework for Progressive UE Engagement and Passion, which was further developed based on the results of this study, to be used and validated by sport psychologists.

Unveiling the Mental Toughness and Performance Resilience of Table Tennis Athletes

This study examined the psychological resilience and mental fortitude of Chinese table tennis athletes, specifically analyzing their demographic characteristics. The sample comprised predominantly of athletes aged 18 to 24, with a majority of female participants and a notable proportion having less than one year of expertise in the sport. Athletes assessed their mental toughness dimensions, such as commitment, control, confidence, and challenge, as being of average level. Noticeable disparities in mental resilience evaluations were noted among various age cohorts, genders, and levels of professional expertise. In terms of age, athletes between the ages of 18 and 24 demonstrated greater dedication and self-regulation, whereas female athletes had higher levels of confidence and dedication. The performance resilience tests indicated that the scores were moderate to slightly above average in many categories, indicating a well-balanced impression of their skills to withstand challenges. Significantly, the components of performance resilience, including awareness, physiology, emotions, and mastery, exhibited notable variations depending on age, gender, and years of experience. Moreover, a significant correlation was discovered between the characteristics of mental toughness and the ability to bounce back from setbacks, underscoring the significance of mental conditioning in improving athletes' capacity to surmount challenges and attain peak performance. These findings highlight the necessity of customized mental training programs to improve psychological resilience and performance among Chinese table tennis athletes. When developing interventions, coaches and sports psychologists should take into account the age, gender, and level of experience of players.

Cross-cultural adaptation of the psychological performance inventory-alternative (PPI-A) for the Indonesian context

In Indonesia, studies on the theme of sports psychology, especially mental toughness, are experiencing an increasing trend. However, there are problems with the measuring instruments used. Therefore, this research aims to adapt and test the psychometric properties of the PPI-A in the Indonesian context. There were 331 young athletes (M = 218, F = 113) with a mean age of 17.9 years and a standard deviation of 2.09. Apart from the psychological performance inventory-alternative (PPI-A), the mental toughness index (MTI) was also used to collect data in this study. The data obtained were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the three models (single-factor model, four-factor model, and second-order model) proposed. The research results show that the second-order model is the best compared to the unidimensional model and four-factor model, as evidenced by the chi-square value = 47.934; df = 32; p = .002; CFI = .961; GFI = .969; TLI = .938; SRMR = .038; RMSEA = .057. Of the fourteen items in the PPI-A, nine items had very good loading factor (λ = .563 to .759; p &lt; 0.001). The internal consistency reliability of the PPI-Aid is moderate (α = .74 to .77) while the reliability with convergent validity is in the small to moderate category (r = .16 to .35; p ≤ .01). Even though the reliability value is not high, it can be stated that PPI-Aid is a valid and reliable measuring tool in measuring aspects of mental toughness. Keywords: mental toughness, psychometric, validation, PPI-A, athlete.

Sex Differences in Athletic Performance Response to the Imagery and Mental Toughness of Elite Middle- and Long-Distance Runners.

This study aimed to determine whether there is a difference between the levels of imagery and mental toughness in the context of sports performance in male and female athletes. A total of 344 track and field athletes, 205 male (59.6%, 23.3 ± 4.0 years) and 139 female (40.4%, 22.9 ± 4.0 years), voluntarily participated in the study. Imagery Inventory and Mental Toughness Inventory in Sport were used as data collection tools in the study. In the evaluation of athletic performance, athletes were asked about their ranks in the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 and were categorized according to the scoring tables specified by the International Association of Athletics Federation. A MANOVA analysis was used to determine whether there was a difference between low (-2% to +5%), medium (+6 to +11%), and high (+12 to +17%) performers among male and female athletes, and a post hoc analysis was used to determine the source of the difference. According to the present findings, there was no significant difference between the imagery and mental toughness levels of athletes with high, medium, and low performance among male athletes. On the contrary, a significant difference was detected between the imagery and mental toughness levels of female athletes with medium and high performances, showing that athletes in the high-performance range had higher levels of imagery (Eta2 = 8) and mental toughness (Eta2 = 10) than athletes in the medium- and low-performance ranges. The findings of this study show that imagery and emotional intelligence are important factors for sports performance. In this context, coaches and sports psychologists can include these parameters in their training programs to achieve the optimal performance range.

Quantitative Analysis and Prediction Methods for Sports Competition Results

In the era of big data, sports performance prediction becomes critical by analyzing accumulated competition data, especially the influence of momentum factors on competition results, although its definition and quantification are controversial in academia. This study explores the application of momentum in predicting the results of sports competitions and proposes a comprehensive research framework combining sports science and sports psychology. By collecting and analyzing the competition data, the feasibility of momentum as an important index in predicting the results of the competition is confirmed. The results show that momentum not only reflects the immediate performance of athletes in the game but also predicts their future results. This finding is of great significance for coaches and athletes to formulate strategies and adjust tactics in the game. Through continuous accumulation and analysis of data, we can more accurately predict the results of the game, and improve the level and fairness of sports competition.

An Interdisciplinary Collaboration to Reduce Weight Stigma Among Exercise Professionals

Weight stigma is the negative social judgment of people based on their weight. Despite the negative consequences of weight stigma, its prevalence is well-documented including within the physical activity (PA) landscape. Research shows that a wide range of PA-related professionals hold negative attitudes toward fat people, including physical education teachers, kinesiology students, and fitness trainers. This article describes a collaboration across disciplines and fields to develop a weight stigma reduction intervention for exercise professionals. Weight Inclusive Thinking for Fitness Spaces (WIT FITS) is a two-hour, self-paced, interactive online course grounded in the Health at Every Size® paradigm and research-informed strategies for improving exercise professionals’ attitudes toward fatness and fostering weight inclusivity in fitness settings. WIT FITS was the result of a three-year interdisciplinary collaboration with scholars from pedagogy, public health, sport and exercise psychology, and nutrition. Community partners involved in the development, implementation, and evaluation of WIT FITS included body liberation activists, web and instructional designers, and campus recreation leaders.