Exercise Dependence Scale Research Articles

Correspondence between alternate measures of maladaptive exercise, and their associations with disordered eating symptomatology.

Aims: The study sought to contribute to the measurement of maladaptive exercise by examining the psychometric properties of a variety of instruments and classification algorithms. The primary aim was to identify the items or scales necessary and sufficient to quantify the construct. A secondary aim was to comment on the construct validity of these measures by examining their relationships with disordered eating symptomatology. Methods: Questionnaire booklets comprising the Exercise Dependence Scale, the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire, the Frequency, Intensity, Time Index, and the Eating Attitudes Test were distributed to women attending health and fitness centres. Self-reported age, height, current and desired weight, and length of time as a regular exerciser were also sought. Data were obtained from 302 regular exercisers. Results: While there were statistically significant associations among the measures, no two operationalised maladaptive exercise in the same manner. The Frequency-Intensity-Time Index (FIT) was found to be particularly poor. While variation in the size of relationships between maladaptive exercise and disordered eating was noted, all measures were strongly correlated with the exception of FIT, which demonstrated a modest correlation. Conclusions: Different conceptualisations of maladaptive exercise have led to alternative operational definitions, resulting in its classification being instrument dependent. Further exploration using samples with differing characteristics (e.g., high/low probability of dependence) may allow more specific recommendations to be made about the optimal measurement of maladaptive exercise. Further, the question of whether maladaptive exercise is more likely a cause or consequence of eating disorders remains.

Validation of the German Version of the Exercise Dependence Scale

This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the German version of the 21-item Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS-G), which was administered in a large representative German sample (N = 1,611). In order to examine convergent validity, we also asked participants to answer the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q). To investigate the discriminant validity, clients of fitness centers (N = 129), sport students (N = 85), and medical students (N = 129) filled out the EDS-G. In this German population-based sample, the seven-factor structure suggested by the original authors as well as a higher-order model (7 + 1 factor model) were supported. The total EDS-G scale showed an excellent internal reliability and was positively related to the EDE-Q total and subscale scores. The EDS-G scores differentiated between samples with varying degrees of exercise. In summary, the results indicate that the EDS-G is a psychometrically sound and potentially valid brief measure for the assessment of exercise dependence symptoms.

The moderating effect of gender on ideal-weight goals and exercise dependence symptoms.

Background and aims Exercise dependence is implicated in the development of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphic disorder. Although conceptually these disorders represent similar pathologies they largely affect different genders and result in opposite body composition, appearance, and ideal-weight goals (i.e., to gain or lose/maintain weight). Therefore, understanding individuals' ideal-weight goals related to engaging in exercise while simultaneously examining gender differences in exercise dependence symptoms may help to identify those whom may be most at-risk for eating disorders and muscle dysmorphic disorder. The purpose of our study was to examine the moderating effect of gender for exercise dependence symptoms in relation to weight gain, loss, or maintenance goals. Methods Self-reported exercise behavior and exercise dependence symptoms (i.e., Exercise Dependence Scale) were assessed in 513 undergraduate students. Results Our analysis revealed a moderating effect for gender on ideal-weight goals and a gender difference in exercise dependence symptoms. Specifically, men who were dissatisfied with their current weight reported more exercise dependence symptoms than women. Conclusions These results support a growing body of research and extend our understanding of the relationships among exercise dependence and gender specific body-focused psychiatric disorders.

Physical Self-Concept and Its Relationship to Exercise Dependence Symptoms in Young Regular Physical Exercisers

The study aimed to investigate whether certain physical self-concept predicted exercise dependence among young regular exercisers using a multidimensional prospective. One hundred fifty-two regular gym users, 78 were male and 74 female, completed: Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ), Exercise Dependence Scale-21 (EDS-21), and Eating Disorder Inventory–2 (EDI-2). Correlation and regression analyses were calculated to determine the relationship between physical self-concept and exercise dependence behaviors. Significant correlations were found, confirming that exercise dependence symptoms and physical self-concept domains were related each other. In addition, results showed that multidimensional model of self-concept is a strong predictor for exercise dependence both for male and female.

Development and validation of the Exercise Dependence and Elite Athletes Scale

Abstract Aims Exercise Dependence (EXD) is a clinical condition associated with physical and psychological risks for elite athletes. This paper describes the development and preliminary validation of the Exercise Dependence (EXD) and Elite Athletes Scale (EDEAS). Method Study 1 generated 27 preliminary items for the EDEAS based on the perceptions of coaches of elite athletes (n = 86). In Study 2, the initial EDEAS was administered to 234 elite athletes and the responses were factor analyzed. Results Six factors emerged: Unhealthy Eating Behavior, Conflict and Dissatisfaction, More Training, Withdrawal, Emotional Difficulties, Continuance Behavior. Item-total correlations for individual subscales and internal reliabilities were acceptable (i.e., α > .60). The final 24-item EDEAS was validated against an alternative measure of EXD, and was shown to be highly correlated. Conclusion The EDEAS shows acceptable preliminary psychometric properties as a measure of EXD among elite athletes.

Psychometric properties and concurrent validity of two exercise addiction measures: A population wide study

ObjectivesThe existence of exercise addiction has been examined in numerous studies. However, none of the measures developed for exercise addiction assessment have been validated on representative samples. Furthermore, estimates of exercise addiction prevalence in the general population are not available. The objective of the present study was to validate the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI; Terry, Szabo, & Griffiths, 2004), and the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS; Hausenblas & Downs, 2002b), and to estimate the prevalence of exercise addiction in general population. DesignExercise addiction was assessed within the framework of the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary (NSAPH), a national representative study for the population aged 18–64 years (N = 2710). Method474 people in the sample (57% males; mean age 33.2 years) who reported to exercise at least once a week were asked to complete the two questionnaires (EAI, EDS). ResultsConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated good fit both in the case of EAI (CFI = 0.971; TLI = 0.952; RMSEA = 0.052) and EDS (CFI = 0.938; TLI = 0.922; RMSEA = 0.049); and confirmed the factor structure of the two scales. The correlation between the two measures was high (r = 0.79). Results showed that 6.2% (EDS) and 10.1% (EAI) of the population were characterized as nondependent-symptomatic exercisers, while the proportion of the at-risk exercisers were 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively. ConclusionsBoth EAI and EDS proved to be a reliable assessment tool for exercise addiction, a phenomenon that is present in the 0.3–0.5% of the adult general population.

Egzersiz bağımlılığı ve psikopatolojik özelliklerinin değerlendirilmesi / Exercise dependence and evaluations of psychopathological features

Exercise dependence and evaluations of psychopathological features Objective: Exercise dependence has been described as making excessive physical exercise leading to clinically significant negative consequences. Self report scales were developed for the diagnosis of exercise dependence based on DSM-IV criteria. For the diagnosis, exercise frequency, psychological factors (e.g. pathological commitment), tolerance and withdrawal symptoms should be taken into consideration. However, the diagnosis of exercise dependence has been neglected because its definition is unsatisfactory and exercise dependent subjects do not seek any help. Secondary exercise dependence is defined as compulsive exercise occurring with eating disorders. The aim of this study is to investigate the exercise dependence in subjects practicing sports regularly and to evaluate the psychopathological features and disordered eating behaviors in the exercise dependent subjects. Method: One hundred fifteen voluntary subjects who had exercised regularly at least three times a week throughout the previous year were evaluated by Exercise Dependence Scale-21 (EDS-21), Symptom Check List 90-Revised (SCL-90-R) form and Eating Attitude Test (EAT-40). The subjects were categorized into three groups as exercise dependent, non-dependent symptomatic and non-dependent asymptomatic according to EDS-21 results and the groups were compared with each other. Results: Exercise dependence was present in 14 (12%) of all subjects. Of the exercise dependent subjects, 85% met the physiological dependence criteria. Exercise dependent group did not statistically differ from the other groups in terms of psychopathological symptoms and eating behavior. Conclusions: Our results showed that eating behavior and psychopathological features in exercise dependent subjects were not different from those of the non- dependent symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects. Exercise dependent subjects in the present study were categorized as having primary exercise dependence because they had no psychological and eating disorders symptoms. Psychological features and eating behavior should be evaluated together for the diagnosis of primary exercise dependence in subjects who exercised excessively and differential diagnosis should be made from the eating disorders.

Compulsive exercising: Validating a measurement construct

The growing prevalence of compulsive exercising among those who participate in sports and fitness has highlighted the question of what it is exactly that differentiate between a healthy commitment to exercising and harmful dependence on it. Answering it has been a challenge compounded by the lack of conceptual clarity about constructs involved and doubtful quality of measurement instruments available. We revised one of the leading instruments, the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS, Hausenblas and Downs, 2002) and examined reliability and construct validity of the resulting 19-item tool, the Exercise Habits Survey (EHS).

Validation française du questionnaire de dépendance de l’exercice physique (Exercise Dependence Questionnaire)

Introduction The Exercise Dependence Questionnaire (EDQ) conceptualises exercise dependence (ED) within both traditional biomedical and psychosocial perspectives. This tool is a valid and reliable multidimensional measure of ED. Objective The aim of the present study was to examine the internal consistency, test-retest reliability and factorial validity of the EDQ, in a French language version. In comparison to other existing scales like the EDS (Exercise Dependance Scale), the EDQ emphases not only the symptoms of addiction but also the motivations to exercise. Method The French language version of the EDQ was completed by 160 participants (60% male, students and practitioners leisures of sports activities). Participants completed the EDS and measures of exercise behavior. Results Adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability for the scale were obtained. Confirmatory analysis (SPSS 16) supported a correlated eight-factor model, as suggested by Ogden, Veale and Summers (1997). The model fit indices were satisfying, RMSEA = 0.048; CFI = 0.90; IFI = 0.91; Chi 2/dll = 1.38. This study provides evidence for the reliability and validity of the French language version of the EDQ. The convergent validity of this scale with the Exercise Dependence Scale was r = 0.52. These two scales appear more complementary than redundant. The EDS focuses more on the strict definition of the dependence whereas the EDQ adds a motivational perspective often link to eating disorders. Conclusion The EDQ can be thus used in the clinical and studies framework on the exercise dependence.

Exercise dependence score in patients with longstanding eating disorders and controls: The importance of affect regulation and physical activity intensity

To examine associations among exercise dependence score, amount of physical activity and eating disorder (ED) symptoms in patients with longstanding ED and non-clinical controls. Adult female inpatients (n = 59) and 53 age-matched controls participated in this cross sectional study. Assessments included the eating disorders examination, eating disorders inventory, exercise dependence scale, reasons for exercise inventory, and MTI Actigraph accelerometer. Positive associations were found among vigorous, not moderate, physical activity, exercise dependence score and ED symptoms in patients. In the controls, ED symptoms were negatively associated with vigorous physical activity and not correlated with exercise dependence score. Exercise for negative affect regulation, not weight/appearance, and amount of vigorous physical activity were explanatory variables for exercise dependence score in both groups. The positive associations among exercise dependence score, vigorous physical activity and ED symptoms need proper attention in the treatment of longstanding ED.

Biological, Contextual and Psychological Correlates of Exercise Dependence among Female Track and Field Athletes

Despite the recent proliferation of research examining biological correlates of eating disorder risk among female aesthetic sport athletes, little is known about track and field athletes. PURPOSE: To examine biological, psychological and contextual correlates of exercise dependence (EXD). METHODS: Division I and II collegiate athletes (N = 282), ages 17 to 26 (M= 20.19± 2.55) representing 5 contexts (sprinters, lean field events, non-lean field events, distance running, multi event) completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), Exercise Dependence scale, Stunkard silhouettes, and self-reported height, weight, and age at menarche. Body image (BI) discrepancy (current -ideal silhouette scores) and body image distortion (BMI- current silhouette scores) were calculated for daily clothing (DC) and uniform (U). RESULTS: Paired sample t-tests on discrepancy scores indicated track and field athletes' ideal BI was lower than their current BI in both DC and U (p<.001). ANOVA indicated athletes in non-lean field events reported higher DC and U distortion scores than athletes from all other groups; non-lean field events reported higher discrepancy scores in DC and U than sprinters and non-lean field athletes who were higher than lean field events and distance runners. Multi event athletes reported highest SPA, and along with distance runners, the highest Lack of Control, Reduction in other Activities, and Time, EXD subscales (p <.05). Quasi-hierarchical regression controlling for BMI and pubertal timing indicated SPA (18.9%) and U distortion (1.9%) explained 19.5% of EXD variance. Biological variables were not significant predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Like in the disordered eating literature, SPA is the strongest predictor of EXD. Track and field athletes do not appear to be a homogenous group based on the event type variability in BI distortion, discrepancy, SPA and EXD subscales. Surprisingly, BI appears to be a greater concern for non-lean field event athletes and not those in lean sports suggesting cultural ideals may be conflicting with the physique necessary for elite performance in non-lean field events. In contrast, distance runners appear to be at greatest risk for SPA and three of the seven EXD scales. Practitioners should recognize these variations when consulting with track and field athletes.

Exercise dependence and the drive for muscularity in male bodybuilders, power lifters, and fitness lifters

Researchers have hypothesized differences in exercise dependence and drive for muscularity between bodybuilders and power lifters, while others have not found the predicted differences. This study assessed 146 weight lifters (bodybuilders, n = 59; power lifters, n = 47; fitness lifters, n = 40) on the Exercise Dependence Scale, Bodybuilding Dependence Scale, and the Drive for Muscularity Scale. Results showed that bodybuilders and power lifters were significantly higher than fitness lifters on EDS Total, 7 EDS scales, and the 3 BDS scales. In contrast, power lifters were found to be significantly higher on DMS Total and DMS Behavior scales than bodybuilders. The regression results suggest that exercise dependence may be directly related to the drive for muscularity.

Exercise dependence and social physique anxiety in competitive and non‐competitive runners

This study examined differences in exercise dependence and social physique anxiety between competitive and non‐competitive runners. One hundred and eighty four distance runners were assigned to four groups on the basis of their competitive status and sex. Each completed the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS), the Running Addiction Scale (RAS), and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS). The competitive runners scored significantly higher on the EDS and the RAS than the non‐competitive runners. Also, a higher proportion of the competitive runners were classified as being at‐risk for exercise dependence compared to the noncompetitive runners. However, there were no significant between‐group differences in SPAS scores and no significant relationships between SPAS scores and either EDS or RAS scores. Also, there were no significant differences between males and females. These results suggest that competitive runners are more likely to exhibit symptoms of exercise dependence than non‐competitive runners but do not exhibit more social physique anxiety

A dependência pela prática de exercícios físicos e o uso de recursos ergogênicos

The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of physical exercise dependence in regards to the characteristics of participants in weight training and exercises at gyms, such as the use of ergogenic resources, gender and body mass index. Eighty subjects (27.12 ± 6.60 years) from both genders took part in the study, all of whom practiced gymnastics and/or weight training in gyms. The study utilized the Exercise Dependence Scale, a check list of the kinds of nutritional supplementation used as ergogenic resources, and the Body Mass Index – BMI (Kg cm-²). Statistical analysis was performed using Spearman's correlation and the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.05). The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between physical exercise dependence in men (5.14 ± 1.28) and women (5.60 ± 1.45). The body mass index did not show statistically significant correlation with the scores of dependency, either. However, dependent men showed high prevalence of use of ergogenic resources (63.63%, p = 0.01), while for dependent women there were no statistically significant results. The body mass index does not relate to the scores of exercise dependence. However, even with a normal BMI, the use of ergogenic resources presents high prevalence among dependent men. As a result, there is evidence that physical exercise dependence is a risk factor for the development of emotional disturbances related to exercise, such as muscle dysmorphia and overtraining.

Physical activity and exercise dependence during inpatient treatment of longstanding eating disorders: An exploratory study of excessive and non‐excessive exercisers

To describe changes in physical activity (PA) and exercise dependence score during treatment of eating disorders (ED), and to explore correlations among changes in PA, exercise motivation, exercise dependence score and ED psychopathology in excessive and non-excessive exercisers. Thirty-eight adult females receiving inpatient treatment for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa or ED not otherwise specified participated in this prospective study. Assessments included accelerometer assessed PA, Exercise Dependence Scale, Reasons for Exercise Inventory, ED Examination, and ED Inventory. Amount of PA was significantly reduced in non-excessive exercisers during treatment, in excessive exercisers there was a trend towards reduced amount of PA from admission to discharge. In excessive exercisers, reduced ED psychopathology was correlated with reduction in exercise dependence score and perceived importance of exercise to regulate negative affects, but not with importance of exercise for weight/appearance. These associations were not found in non-excessive exercisers. Excessive exercise is an important issue in longstanding ED, and the excessive exercising patients need help to develop alternative strategies to regulate negative affects.

Dependência de exercício físico: humor, qualidade de vida em atletas amadores e profissionais

O objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar se existem diferenças nos escores de Dependência de Exercício (DE), escores de humor e qualidade de vida em atletas profissionais e amadores de modalidade esportivas coletivas e individuais. MÉTODOS: Participaram deste estudo 116 atletas praticantes de modalidades esportivas coletivas (n = 60, sendo 20 profissionais e 40 amadores) e individuais (n = 56, sendo 16 profissionais e 40 amadores) do gênero masculino. As médias (± desvio-padrão) da idade, estatura, massa corporal e índice de massa corpórea (IMC) foram: 22,13 ± 6,16 anos; 1,77 ± 0,10cm; 72,76 ± 10,04kg; e 23,10 ± 2,04kg/m², respectivamente. Os atletas responderam aos seguintes questionários: Escala de Dependência de Exercício (EDE), Inventário Beck de Depressão, Idate Traço e Estado de Ansiedade, Questionário POMS de perfil de humor, Questionário SF-36 de Qualidade de Vida, em um dia de folga dentro da periodização normal de treinamento, caracterizando o estudo como transversal. O trabalho foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Unifesp (# 0616/06). RESULTADOS: Atletas amadores e profissionais apresentaram escores similares de DE, mas quando considerados os tipos de modalidade, os amadores praticantes de modalidades coletivas apresentam maiores escores, o que se inverte quando considerados atletas profissionais. Em relação aos resultados de humor, atletas profissionais apresentaram mais qualidade de vida e menores escores de humor. CONCLUSÃO: Atletas amadores e profissionais praticantes de modalidades esportivas coletivas e individuais respondem diferentemente à DE; o tipo de modalidade e seu envolvimento social e competitivo parecem ser o grande determinante. Além disso, pode-se concluir que atletas profissionais de modalidades coletivas apresentam melhor perfil de humor e qualidade de vida, tanto quando comparados com profissionais de modalidades individuais, quando com atletas amadores praticantes de modalidades coletivas ou individuais.

Alexithymia Is Related To Disordered Eating, Exercise Dependence, And Depression In Young Adults

Alexithymia is a psychological construct that describes one's inability to distinguish between physical feelings and emotions, and one's inability to express their emotions. The prevalence of alexithymia is generally higher in eating disorder and depression patients than in controls. Alexithymia has not been studied in people with exercise dependence. PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to examine the association between alexithymia and exercise dependence, disordered eating, and depression; and to see if exercise dependence is more prevalent in people with alexithymia than not. METHODS: Subjects were men and women between 18-40 y. Each subject completed the following diagnostic tools: TAS-20 (Alexithymia), EDI (Eating Disorder Inventory), EDS (Exercise Dependence Scale), and the BDI (Beck Depression Inventory). RESULTS: Alexithymia is positively related (p<0.0001) to disordered eating (r=0.61), depression (r=0.59), and exercise dependence (r=0.41). 93% of those with alexithymia are depressed, while 100% of those with exercise dependence are depressed. 40% of those with exercise dependence are alexithymic. Eating Disorder Inventory (p<0.001), Beck Depression Inventory (p<0.003), and Exercise Dependence Scale (p<0.03) scores are higher in those with alexithymia than without. The prevalence of alexithymia (18%) is higher in the sample than eating disorders (5%, p<0.003), less than the prevalence of depression (58%, p<0.001), and the same as that of exercise dependence (6%). Exercise dependence is higher (p<0.01) in those with alexithymia (14%) than those without (5%). Exercise dependence is higher (p<0.004) in those with depression (28%) than those without (3%). CONCLUSION: Alexithymia, exercise dependence and eating disorders are significantly related. A person's inability to identify and express his/her emotions may pre-dispose him/her to an eating or exercise disorder. Supported by the Department of Exercise Science at George Washington University

Psychological Characteristics Of Ultramarathon Participants

Despite the widely accepted notion of an exercise dose-response effect on various health outcomes, the psychological consequences of extremely long bouts of physical activity are unclear. PURPOSE: To evaluate life satisfaction, exercise dependence, enjoyment, and affective changes with participation in a running event of 50, 100, or 150 miles. METHODS: Male (n = 10) and female (n = 10) participants (Mean ± SD age = 40.8 ± 10.3 yrs) completed self-reports prior to and immediately following participation in a 50-, 100-, or 150-mile trail run. All participants supplied written informed consent and responses to the Activation-Deactivation Adjective Checklist (AD ACL; Thayer, 1989), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991), and Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS; Hausenblas & Symons Downs, 2002). Baseline values of SWLS and EDS were compared with normative data, and changes in AD ACL were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. An independent t-test was used to compare PACES scores between those who completed their event (n=10) and those who completed ≥ 26.2 mi but did not finish (n=10). RESULTS: EDS scores indicated that 80% displayed symptoms of exercise dependence, with 10% at higher dependence risk. Baseline SWLS scores were high to very high (Mean ± SD = 29.8 ± 3.6) at baseline and slightly, but not significantly, higher post-event (Mean ± SD = 30.3 ± 3.2), as expected given the global nature of the measure. Pre-post affective changes on the AD ACL were observed, including significantly reduced Energy (F=6.8, p <.05) and increased Tiredness (F=13.27, p <.01). Increases in Tension (F=4.24, p =.06) and decreases in Calmness (F=3.98, p =.07) were borderline significant. Athletes completing their planned distance had significantly higher PACES scores than non-finishers (t = 2.10, p =.05). CONCLUSIONS: AD ACL changes suggest that extremely long bouts of running negatively influence affective valence, likely due to strong interoceptive cues (Ekkekakis et al., 2008) and sleep deprivation. However, life satisfaction was high and athletes enjoyed their activity, an effect moderated by finisher status. Symptoms of exercise dependence were common, which itself may influence psychological health.

Contrasting gender differences on two measures of exercise dependence

Objective:Recent studies using multidimensional measures have shown that men (Exercise Dependence Scale; EDS-R) are more exercise-dependent than women, whereas others have found that women (Exercise Dependence Questionnaire; EDQ) are more...

Factorial Validity and Psychometric Examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised

The research purposes were to examine the factorial and convergent validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability of the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS). Two separate studies, containing a total of 1,263 college students, were undertaken to accomplish these purposes. Participants completed the EDS and measures of exercise behavior and perfectionism. Confirmatory factor analysis in Study 1 reduced the scale from 28 to 21 items (i.e., 3 items per subscale) and it supported a correlated seven-factor model in Study 2 (Tucker-Lewis Index = .96, comparative fit index = .97, root mean square error of approximation = .05, average absolute standardized residual = .02). Adequate internal consistency and test-rest reliability for the scale was evidenced. Consistent with the hypotheses and the EDS classifications for exercise dependence symptoms, individuals at risk for exercise dependence reported more exercise behavior and perfectionistic tendencies, compared to the nondependent-symptomatic and nondependent-asymptomatic groups. These studies provide evidence for the reliability and validity of the EDS. Research in more diverse populations is needed to further examine the general applicability of the EDS-Revised.